Principles Of Gross Anatomy

Front 1

What are the (4) functions of skeletal muscle?

Back 1

1. Movement2. Maintenance of Posture3. Joint Stabilization4. Heat generation

Front 2

What are the (4) CHARACTERISTIC of SKELETAL muscle that enable it to function?

Back 2

1. Contractility: Muscles are dumb cells and can only do one thing: contract. Even when you stick out your tongue, you must contract muscles to generate that movement. Muscles never push.2. Excitability: Action potentials cause muscle contraction.3. Extensibility: When a muscle contracts, its antagonist will be stretched or extended. We’ll talk more on this later. For now, just know that contracting certain muscles will cause other certain muscles to stretch. 4. Elasticity: Muscles act like rubber bands. Once the load is removed from a muscle, it will recoil back to its original position.

Front 3

What are the fascicle layers that organize the muscle?

Back 3

Epimysium=the tissue surrounding the entire musclePerimysium=the tissue surrounding each fascicleEndomysium=the tissue surrounding each myofiber

Front 4

What anatomical features allow a single muscle to work? How do muscles produce movement?

Back 4

Each muscle is innervated by one nerve. Removing or severing this nerve will cause a nerve injury, and the muscle will necrose. A muscle will also be supplied by at least 1 artery (sometimes 2), and, because the entry of an artery requires the exit of a vein, a muscle will also have 1 or more veins.Muscles produce movement by spanning one or more joints.

Front 5

What sorts of anatomical features do muscles attach to?

Back 5

raised bumps on bones at the sites of muscle attachment. These bumps are called TUBERCLES, TROCHANTERS, or CRESTS, and an example is the mastoid process where the sternocleidomastoid attaches. There are also instances where a muscle attaches to another muscle instead of a bone. This attachment is called a RAPHE

Front 6

Why is the arrangement of fasciales significant? What are the different types? (4)

Back 6

The arrangement of fascicles in a muscle will determine its STRENGTH and ROM. There are four types of arrangements:1.) PARALLEL: straplike; can shorten the most, which gives them a great range of motion; generally lack power2.) CONVERGENT: fascicles from two distinct locations merge on a common tendon3.) PENNATE: large; many fascicles attach at a common tendon in a slanted, layered orientation, creating a “feathered” arrangement of fascicles on the tendon; very strong with limited range of motion4.) CIRCULAR: sphincters

Hint 6

the larger the muscle, the more power it will be able to exercise

Front 7

What type of lever is this?

Back 7

2ND CLASS LEVERS (ALWAYS MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE) When at a mechanical advantage, the distance between the muscle and the joint is greater than the distance between the joint and the load.

Hint 7

That is, the load is closer to the joint than is the muscle. This allows the muscle to be strong but slow. This will always be the case in 2nd class levers such as the gastrocnemia of the legs. Here, we sacrifice speed for strength, which gives us the ability to stand.

Front 8

What type of level is this?

Back 8

3RD CLASS LEVERS (ALWAYS MECHANICAL DISADVANTAGE)When at a mechanical disadvantage, the distance between the muscle and the joint is less than the distance between the joint and the load. That is, the muscle is closer to the joint than is the load.Class 3: Effort in the middle: the resistance is on one side of the effort and the fulcrum is located on the other side, for example, a pair of tweezers or the human mandible.

Hint 8

This gives the muscle greater speed and a greater range of motion but limits its strength, as is seen in 3rd class levers such as the biceps

Front 9

What type of lever is this?

Back 9

1ST CLASS LEVERScan work at a mechanical advantage or a mechanical disadvantage.Class 1: Fulcrum in the middle: the effort is applied on one side of the fulcrum and the resistance on the other side, for example, a crowbar or a pair of scissors.

Hint 9

To recap: 1st class levers can work at a mechanical advantage or disadvantage2nd class levers are ALWAYS at a mechanical advantage3rd class levers are ALWAYS at a mechanical disadvantage

Front 10

Which layer do muscles come from? (Embryology)

Back 10

Muscles from MESODERM layer of embryo

Hint 10

The smooth muscle of our visceral organs is derived from the splanchnic mesoderm. The somitomeres, myotomes, and limb buds also arise from the mesoderm. It is these structures that will give rise to our skeletal muscles.

Front 11

Pharyngeal (Branchiomeric) Arch Muscles

Back 11

These muscles develop from the 4th-7th SOMITOMERESand end up in the head or neck. We should know that they are developed from branchiomeres and are innervated by cranial nerves.

Front 12

Axial Muscles

Back 12

There are two distinct lines of development for axial muscles: MYOTOMES give rise to the skeletal muscles of the head neck, thorax, abdomen, and pelvis. These muscles function to move the trunk and maintain our posture. 1st-3rd SOMITOMERES give rise to the extrinsic eye muscles and the muscles of the tongue. These muscles are histologically unremarkable but are given special attention because they’re involved in the senses.

Front 13

Limb Muscles

Back 13

The myotomes also give rise to the limb buds. The dorsal part of the limb bud will become the extensors of our limbs and the ventral part of the limb. limb bud will become the flexors of our limbs. At birth, our legs face outward. In this position, the extensors of both our arms and our legs are dorsally located and the flexors, ventrally located dorsally. As we learn to walk and become biped, our lower limbs rotate, changing the orientation of our extensors and flexors to opposite that of our upper limbs. This is why once we are able to walk, the extensors of our lower limbs are ventrally located and the extensors of our upper limbs are dorsally located. Likewise, the flexors of our lower limbs are dorsally located and the flexors of our upper limbs are ventrally located. More simply, this is why our elbows and knees bend in opposite directions.

Front 14

What is the path of blood flow to the heart?

Back 14

Right Atrium → Tricuspid Valve → Right Ventricle → Pulmonary Trunk (Splits into Right and Left Pulmonary Artery) → Lungs → Pulmonary Veins → Left Atrium → Bicuspid/Mitral Valve → Left Ventricle → Aorta → Systemic Circulation.

Hint 14

Pulmonary circulation receives 100% of cardiac output (blood flow) unlike systemic circulation.

Front 15

What is unique about pulmonary circulation vs systemic circulation?

Back 15

Pulmonary circulation receives 100% of cardiac output (blood flow) unlike systemic circulation.

Front 16

What are the only arteries that carry deoxygenated blood? Where is that blood coming from? Where is it going to?

Back 16

The PULMONARY ARTERIES are the only arteries that carry deoxygenated blood. Right Ventricle → Pulmonary Trunk (Pulmonary Arteries) → Lungs → Pulmonary Veins → L. Atrium.

Front 17

The heart is always full of blood.... Why does the heart even need it's own blood supply (coronary arteries)?

Back 17

CORONARY ARTERIES arteries are vital, as the blood in the chambers of the heart do not have enough time to diffuse nutrients though the thick chamber walls. Lack of coronary artery blood supply causes death of cardiac tissue and can lead to heart attacks.

Hint 17

This diversion of blood is also why systemic circulation does not receive 100% of cardiac output

Front 18

What are the four main arteries that supply the head, neck and brain?

Back 18

Common Carotid Arteries: Branches into the external*carotid*artery supplying the neck and face, and the internal*carotid*artery supplying the brain.Vertebral Arteries: Cervical vertebra have an opening for these, traveling to the brain ultimately to form the circle of willisThyrocervical Trunk: Delivers blood to the thyroid (thyro) and the neck (cervix)Costocervical Trunk: Supplies the ribs (costal) and the neck (cervical).

Hint 18

The internal carotid artery travels directly into the cranium, supplying the brain. This is particularly important as plaques can build up in this artery, occluding blood flow, causing a stroke and death of brain tissue. This would be treated by a
carotid endarectomy in order to remove the plaque. The external carotid artery branches into the temporal branch and the maxillary branch, supplying the neck and face respectively.

Front 19

What are some places that have a retrograde blood supply and why is this significant?

Back 19

Hip joint, wrists, ankles.hen you fracture a hip, you are fracturing the neck of the femur. Due to the retrograde blood supply, the location of the fracture along the neck of the femur will determine if a hip replacement is needed or not. The closer to the head the more likely you will need a hip replacement. The farther or more distal it is, however, the better the chance that the blood supply to the femur head and neck is intact and thus the replacement is unnecessary.

Front 20

When should one be careful about popping pimples? What about blood circulation makes this dangerous?

Back 20

When they are in the danger triangle of the face.The face is supplied by the EXTERNAL CAROTID ARTERIES and drained by the FACIAL VEIN. There are areas where the venous return from the cranium meets the venous return of the face. Sooo... If you pop pimples on your face, the ace can enter the facial vein that has a direct connection to the venous return of the skull. This in turn can travel to the cavernous sinus and lead to meningitis. AHHH!!

Front 21

Which vein do you usually draw blood from?

Back 21

The MEDIAN CUBITAL VEIN is of particular importance as this is where you insert an IV or draw blood.

Front 22

What is unique about the venous return of the GI system?

Back 22

PORTAL SYSTEMA portal system is simply blood flow traveling through two capillary beds.

Hint 22

Any time there is blockage at the liver you are going to impact anything that goes to the GI tract, causing engorgement of the capillary bed which can rupture causing internal bleeding. This type of blockage is can happen to ALCOHOLICS due to liver damage.

Front 23

What can we use the SAPHENOUS VEIN for (right lower limb)? Why is it useful clinically?

Back 23

It can be harvested for coronary bypass and is a convenient location to inject IVs (venous cutdown).

Hint 23

*In the case of harvesting the vein for coronary bypass, remember that veins have valves unlike arteries. Thus you need to reverse the polarityof the vein insert it inside out so the valves don’t impede coronary blood flow.*

Front 24

What are the basic features of skeletal muscle? What is the signification of the # of motor neurons that innervated one muscle? Why would this be useful?

Back 24

Connective tissue SHEATHS hold several fibers togetherNerves and Blood vessels: In general, each skeletal muscle is supplied by ONE NERVE, ONE ARTERY, and ONE (or more) VEINS, entering near the middle of the muscle. One nerve = one concerted effort at the same time!

Front 25

What are the 4 characteristics of the skeletal muscle? What are the 4 main functions of skeletal muscle?

Back 25

*Muscles only PULL*Muscles are excited by ONE nerve*muscles can be stretched back

Front 26

Name the 3 types of muscles (Duh)Where do you find them in the body?

Back 26

Focus on skeletal in gross anatomy

Front 27

What specific anatomical feature do muscles span over? How do muscles attach? What does it attatch to? WTF is a raphe?

Back 27

*Muscle attached to boneAs it pulls on bone, creates groves on it skeleton

Front 28

A muscle will always move the _________ bone. Muscles _______ from one another (spanning a joint).

Back 28

A muscle will always move the DISTAL bone (Furthest away from trunk). Muscles EXTEND from one another.

Front 29

A muscle will always move the _________ bone. Muscles _______ from one another (spanning a joint).

Back 29

A muscle will always move the DISTAL bone (Furthest away from trunk). Muscles extend from one another.

Front 30

What are these types of broad tendons called?

Back 30

APONEUROSISBroad tendon*ie. latissumus dorsi*palmar tendon*plantar tendon

Front 31

The arrangements of which three elements determine the functions (speed of contraction/ ROM/ strength) of muscles in the body?

Back 31

Fulcrum/ lever/ effortJoint/ bones/ muscles

Front 32

Why not just make all muscles be mechanically advantageous? Wouldn't it just make sense to have all muscles arranged to be a strong as possible?

Back 32

Mechanically disadvantaged= greater ROM and speed in exchange for less power.

Front 33

What do they mean when they say a first class lever be both mechanically advantageous OR mechanically disadvantageous at the same time?

Back 33

*Effort is either much farther away (or closer to) fulcrum AKA scissors vs bolt cutters.

Front 34

Demonstrate each type of movement at synovial joints.(angular, gliding, rotation)

Back 34

Front 35

Demonstrate each type of "special movement" at the synovial joints.

Back 35

Front 36

What are the 4 types of muscle fibers in the human body? Why is this arrangement significant?

Back 36

Arrangement of fascicles influences range of motion and power of muscleParallel arranged fascicles can shorten the most (great range of motion), but generally lack powerPower of muscles depends more on total number of fibers (pinnate and multipennate).

Hint 36

Parallel, e.g., straplike or fusiform musclesConvergent: Fascicles converge towards the tendonPennate (Bipennate, Multipennate): fascicles are short and attach obliquely to a tendon running length of muscle Circular: sphincter muscles

Front 37

What are:Agonists?Antagonists?Synergists?Fixators?Give and example of each.

Back 37

Agonist (PRIME MOVER): muscle responsible for producing a specific movement (Bicep)ANTAGONIST: Reverses a particular movement (muscles cannot push) (Tricep)SYNERGIST: Help agonists – work with or can dampen undesirable movement, e.g., making a fist yet not flexing the wrist (biceps brachii)FIXATORS ("POSTURE MUSCLES"): Hold bone firmly in place so that agonist has a stable point to serve as an “origin”, e.g., scapula.

Front 38

Muscles can be named after a bunch of different properties. What is an example of muscle being named after:Location?Shape?Size of muscle?Direction of fascicles/ muscle fiber?location of attachments?Number of orgins?Action?

Back 38

Location: e.g., brachial and intercostal musclesShape: e.g., deltoid, trapeziusRelative size of muscle: e.g., maximus, minimus, longus, brevisDirection of fascicles and muscle fibers: e.g., rectus, transversus, obliqueLocation of attachments: origin and insertion, origin always named first e.g., brachioradialisNumber of origins: e.g., biceps, triceps, quadricepsAction: e.g., flexor, extensor, adductor, or abductor

Front 39

What is the STRONGEST MUSCLE in the body??

Back 39

The MASSETOR

Hint 39

The BUCCinator, massetor and temporalis are all involved in chewing (mastication).

Front 40

What are all these muscles involved in? And why are there so damn many?!

Back 40

Facial expression... requires more fine motor skills. Hence more control of fine movement with more muscles.

Front 41

What are these muscles involved in? What are the two big ones she pointed to? What do they do precisely?

Back 41

HEAD MOVEMENTS*STERNOCLEIDOMASTOID- postural muscle*SCALENE MUSCLES- turn head side to side. (attatch to 1+2nd ribs and cervical vertebrae)

Hint 41

(Black suits comin...)NOD YA ****** HEAD

Front 42

Which bone cells are the bone FORMING/ building cells?

Back 42

OSTEOBLASTS

Front 43

What are the bone cells that are involved in bone breakdown/ reabsorption?

Back 43

OSTEOCLASTS

Front 44

What are osteocytes?

Back 44

Mature bone cells

Front 45

Name them!!

Back 45

Know cold

Front 46

Name the shoulder bones/ features

Back 46

Scapula (glenoid cavity, coracoid process, acromion)Humerus (humeral head)Clavicle

Front 47

What are the 6 steps of cadaver dissection?

Back 47

Exposure of the pectoral region. Make the following incisions:From jugular notch, Sagittaly, to xiphoid process (1)From jugular notch, along clavicle, to Acromion (2)From sternal angle, laterally to axilla (3)From body of sternum, laterally, circumscribe nipple, to edge of table (4)From xiphoid process, laterally to edge of table (5)From xiphoid process, obliquely, along costal margin (6)

Front 48

Describe (using proper anatomical terms) what to do for each step.Which surface features do you use for each one?Exposure of the pectoral region. Make the following incisions:

Back 48

1.) From JUGULAR NOTCH to XIPHOID PROCESS- SAGITALLY2. From JUGULAR NOTCH, along CLAVICLE (OBLIQUE), to ACROMION (TRANSVERSE) )3. From STERNAL ANGLE to AXILLA (LATERALLY) 4. From body of STERNUM, laterally, nipple (CIRCUMSCRIBE) , to edge of table 5. From XIPHOID PROCESS, to edge of table (LATERALLY)6. From XIPHOID PROCESS, along COSTAL MARGIN (OBLIQUELY)

Front 49

Back 49

Front 50

What are three functions of the lymphatic system?

Back 50

Function: I: Drain interstitial fluid.- The CV system is only 90% efficient. The 10% of fluid is typically lost in capillary beds at the cellular level. It is returned to the venous circulation by the lymphatic system II: Transport dietary lipids.- The lacteals carry chyle out of the GI tract and dump it directly into the bloodstream, BYPASSING THE LIVER.III: Protect against infection.- Really??? Do I really have to explain this!?

Front 51

What is the composition of the lymphatic system?

Back 51

Composition: 1. Fluid (lymph) 2. Vessels (lymphatics) 3. Structures and organs that contain lymphatic tissue4. Red bone marrow (site of lymphocyte production)

Front 52

Describe how lymph is formedWhat does lymph pick up? What about plasma protiens in blood? What if they esacpe?

Back 52

Lymph (tissue fluid) picked up by capillaries **Most plasma proteins are too large to leave blood vessels**Proteins that escape, must return to circulation**At a certain point, after tissue pressure builds, lymphatic capillaries open up and allow return

Front 53

Lymph is everywhere throughout the body EXCEPT:

Back 53

Except: Avascular tissues (e.g., cartilage, epidermis, cornea of eye)Central nervous tissuePortions of spleenRed bone marrow

Front 54

Describe basic direction of lymph flow.Which direction does lymph flow? Which way do lymph valves point? Which direction is it drained from?Where does it come from/ go to?

Back 54

Front 55

Back 55

Front 56

Why might it be useful to know which lymph nodes drain from which tissues?Why do doctors always palpate your inguinal area? What could you tell by touching lymph nodes?

Back 56

LYMPH NODES= Site where lymphatic and immune systems intersectLocation & direction of flow important in diagnosis/ prog-nosis of cancer spread by metastasisCancer in lymph nodes not tenderInflamed lymph nodes feel tender

Hint 56

Lymph nodes appear throughout body in groups (~500)Superficial/deepFilter lymph: enters at one end, out the other

Front 57

What is this figure pointing to?

Back 57

Front 58

So how do clinicians see the lymphatic system?

Back 58

Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scans combined with a radio-labeled glucose analogue known as Fludeoxyglucose (FDG). Metabolically active cells, for example, cancer cells, will take up FDG and appear black on the PET scan. Slide #10 shows a patient with myeloma, or cancer of the bone marrow. Myelomas frequently metastasize to the lymph nodes; we can see bilateral axillary lymph node involvement in this patient. Note that black spots indicate hypermetabolism NOT cancer; slide 11 shows that cells damaged by radiation therapy also show up as black spots.

Hint 58

FDG PET scan of a patient with multiple myeloma with severe diffuse and focal disease

Front 59

Lymph flow is passive and unidirectional... so then what drives it to move??(4 things)

Back 59

I: SKELETAL MUSCLE CONTRACTION- Contractions compress the lymphatic vessels, driving lymph flowII: BREATHING- Inhalation creates a pressure differential between the abdomen and thorax. Abdominal pressure increases, forcing lymph upwardsIII: SMOOTH MUSCLE- Contractions of smooth muscles around blood and lymph vessels (see I)IV: GRAVITY- This one is simple. Ever have a swollen ankle? Elevation assists flow!

Front 60

When does lymph flow in?

Back 60

When interstitial fluid pressure greater than lymph, cells separate someFluid enters lymphatic capillary

Front 61

Lymph can only go in, and not back out. So how can cells get more fluid then? Where does it come from? Mechanically, how does this work?

Back 61

When pressure of lymph is greater, cells adhere more closely so lymph cannot flow outAnchoring filament: edema causes pulling and greater opening of capillariesMore interstitial fluid can then return

Front 62

Define:LymphadenopathyLymphedemaLymphomaLymphangitis

Back 62

Lymphadenopathy: Any DISEASE of the lymph nodeLymphedema: SWELLING due to accumulation of lymphatic fluid in loose connective tissueLymphoma: Any NEOPLASM (TUMOR) of the lymphoid tissue, whether benign or malignantLymphangitis: INFECTION caused by severe trauma, elephantitis, parasitic infiltration all of which damage the lymphatic vessels causing severe Lymphedema.

Front 63

Again, why is it so damn important to know which lymphs are draining which tissue?

Back 63

The concept of the SENTINEL lymph node is important because of the advent of the sentinel lymph node biopsy technique, also known as a sentinel node procedure. This technique is used in the staging of certain types of cancer to see if they have spread to any lymph nodes, since lymph node metastasis is one of the most important prognostic signs. It can also guide the surgeon to the appropriate therapy

Front 64

What are the MEDULLA, PONS, MIDBRAIN, THALAMUS, HYPOTHALUMS?Where are they located and what do they do?

Back 64

Medulla-continguous with spinal cord-respiration and heart ratePons-relay between cerebrum and cerebellumMidbrain-relay between cerebrum and spinal coreThalamus-integration of sensory input before proceeding into the hemispheresHypothalamus-controls the visceral nervous system.

Front 65

How much cerebral spinal fluid can we make in a day? What does

Back 65

HERP DERP

Front 66

Think**What is something that is very unique about the drainage of the lymph system?Hint- asymmetry with the quadrants? What parts of the body drain to which areas???

Back 66

Right Jugular trunkright subclavian trunk and right bronchomediastinal trunk all drain the right upper quadrant (belly button and up).EVERYTHING ELSE DRAINS TO THORACIC DUCT.

Front 67

What do you call the lymph capillaries that drain the interstitial fluid from the small intestine?

Back 67

LACETALS

Front 68

What are the functions of the skeletal system?

Back 68

FXN of skeletal system1. Shape and Form of body2. Protection of vital organs3. Movement via attachments for muscle4. Hematoposis in bone marrow/ spongy bone5. Mineral Storage

Front 69

What is the AXIAL skeleton?

Back 69

Bones that support the head, neck and trunkskull, sternum, ribs vertebral column ONLY(does NOT INCLUDE PELVIC GIRDLE OR SHOULDER GIRDLE)

Front 70

What is considered the APPENDICULAR skeleton?

Back 70

Bones that anchor appendages to axial skeleton upper + lower extremities INCLUDING SHOULDER GIRDLE and PELVIC GIRDLE

Front 71

The bone has a lot of inorganic material. So why does it still hurt so bad when you fracture it? What specifically on the bone enables you to feel this pain?

Back 71

The PERIOSTEUM

Front 72

What is the function of cartilage?Where are different places you can find it in the body? What does it do?

Back 72

ear- structural supportmeniscus- smooth gliding surfaceepiphysis- growth of long bone

Front 73

CARTILAGE is extra-cellular fibers embedded in a matrix... both the AMOUNT and TYPE of extracellular fibers vary greatly from tissue to tissue.That being said...How does the composition of cartilage differ depending on its function in the body?Hint-- What would you expect to see in a weightbearing area (meniscus)? Less stressed area (ear)?

Back 73

in more weight-bearing areas (MORE STRESS), you will have MORE COLLAGEN, making the cartilage MORE RIGIDIn less weigh-bearing areas, you will have increased elastic fibers and fewer collagen fibers, increasing the flexibility of the cartilage.

Front 74

BIG ONE know cold!!What type of axial movements do each of these joints have? Give examples of each.

Back 74

1. Plane joint- nonaxial (Gliding) carpals/ AC joint2. Hinge joint- uniaxial- (flexion/extention) knee/elbow/ankle3. Pivot joint- uniaxial- (Rotation) vertebra/ medial radius4. Condylar/ Ellipsoid joint- biaxial (flex/extend+ abd/add+ circumduct) wrist/ fingers5. Saddle joint- biaxial- (flex/ext + abd/add + circumduction) THUMB ONLY6. Ball and Socket Joint- Multiaxial (flex/ext + abd/add + circumduction+ ROTATION) hip/shoulder

Front 75

Synovial joints based on SHAPE and MOVEMENT. Name the movements with each shape....

Back 75

1. Plane joint- nonaxial (Gliding) carpals/ AC joint2. Hinge joint- uniaxial- (flexion/extention) knee/elbow/ankle3. Pivot joint- uniaxial- (Rotation) vertebra/ medial radius4. Condylar/ Ellipsoid joint- biaxial (flex/extend+ abd/add+ circumduct) wrist/ fingers5. Saddle joint- biaxial- (flex/ext + abd/add + circumduction) THUMB ONLY6. Ball and Socket Joint- Multiaxial (flex/ext + abd/add + circumduction+ ROTATION) hip/shoulder

Front 76

What type of tissue is our skeletal SYSTEM composed of?

Back 76

1. bones2. cartilage2. ligaments4. tendons5. enamel

Front 77

What happens to the bone density during menopause (decrease in estrogen)?hint-- What specifically does estrogen do?

Back 77

Estrogen increases osteoClast activity.When osteoClast activity > osteoBlast activity = more bown breakdown (or mineral deficient state)Bone density decreases

Front 78

What can happen when you RESORB too much bone? Hint-- High osteoclast activity/ dissolving bone activtyHint hint-- higher levels of estrogen or calcetonin would help prevent this from happening...

Back 78

OSTEOPOROSIS

Front 79

What is compact bone? Describe its functions.What is cancellous (spongy) bone? What are its functions?Which one would show up lighter on Xray? Which is more affected by osteoblast/ osteoclast activity and hormones?

Back 79

COMPACT- heavier- stronger- denser (difficult for x-ray to penetrate through) protection/ structure/ movementCancellous- lighter/weaker more frequently broken- MORE SURFACE AREA- PTH release calcium from this area... (Estrogen and clacitonin build more bone in this area) Mineral storage/ hematoposis

Hint 79

Cancellous bone, synonymous with spongy bone, is one of two types of osseous tissue that form bones. Compared to compact bone, which is the other type of osseous tissue, it has a higher surface area but is less dense, softer, weaker, and less stiff. It typically occurs at the ends of long bones, proximal to joints and within the interior of vertebrae. Cancellous bone is highly vascular and frequently contains red bone marrow where hematopoiesis, the production of blood cells, occurs. The primary anatomical and functional unit of cancellous bone is the trabecula.Its Latin name is substantia spongiosa or substantia spongiosa ossium.[1] The words cancellous and trabecular refer to the tiny lattice-shaped spicules that form the tissue.[1] It was first illustrated accurately in the engravings of Crisóstomo Martinez.[2]Cancellous bone has a greater surface area in comparison with cortical bone, and as a consequence cancellous bone is ideal for metabolic activity e.g. exchange of calcium ions.In osteoporosis, cancellous bone is more severely affected than cortical bone.from wiki

Front 80

What is the composition of compact bone?

Back 80

HARD MATRIX- very little collagen fibers, very little organic material

Front 81

What makes up 80% of the weight of the human skeleton?

Back 81

COMPACT BONE

Front 82

Which bone makes up the ARM?hint-- just the arm, NOT the FOREarm

Back 82

Humerus

Front 83

Which forearm bone (in anatomic position) is more medial?Which distal inferior bone is more medial?

Back 83

The ULNAThe TIBIA

Front 84

The FIBULA sits _________ to the tibia

Back 84

LATERALLY

Front 85

Which bone type is the STRONGEST BONE in the body? The one we typically see in cartoons/ halloween decorations?

Back 85

Long bone

Front 86

Which bones are mostly spongy bone, with a thin layer of compact? (easier to fracture) Which need more flexibility for fine movement? Cuboidal bones... of wrist bones... what are they called

Back 86

SHORT BONES

Front 87

Which bones are REALLY good at protecting vital organs?

Back 87

FLAT BONESin cranium and sternum

Front 88

What do the bones of the vertebra and the bones of the face have in common with each other?

Back 88

IRREGULAR BONES

Front 89

What are irregular bones with a specific location inside tendons of the joint and help make the joints more efficient?

Back 89

SESAMOID BONES

Front 90

Where do ossification centers of bone end to?

Back 90

CARTILAGE

Hint 90

Synchondroses (Fiborous joints)Two ossification centers in a developing bone remain separated by a layer of cartilageRibs and sternumHead and shaft of developing long bones

Front 91

Which (FIBROUS) joint type is specific to the skull?Hint- its a solid joint.

Back 91

SUTURES

Front 92

What do you call the (FIBROUS) joint of bone and teeth (enamel)?

Back 92

GOMPHOSES

Front 93

Which (FIBROUS) joints are similar to cell junctions at desmosomes where they hold two adjacent bones together?

Back 93

SYNDESMOSOMES

Front 94

Which (CARTELAGENOUS) joints connect bone on bone joints directly with cartilage?

Back 94

SYMPHESES

Front 95

What are the two different types of reflexes in the body? What are the differences between them? Which one forms a memory? When would this be useful?

Back 95

POSTSYNAPTIC REFLEX- 3rd neuron- send signal to hippocampus to make memory associated with that stimulus--- good for survivial. stay away from dangerous/ painful things

Front 96

Each SPINAL nerve has two components to it. What are they, where do they integrate, an what do they do?

Back 96

Motor/efferent (anterior)Sensory/afferent (posteriorl)

Front 97

What are dermatomes? Which area is the only branch not innervated by dermatomes?

Back 97

Front 98

What are MYOTOMES? What do they innervate?

Back 98

Front 99

What are myotomes? what can cause foot drop?

Back 99

Groups of muscle innervated by a single spinal nerve

Hint 99

C3,4 and 5- supply the diaphragm C5-supplies the shoulder muscles and the muscle that we use to bend our elbow .C6 -bending the wrist back.C7 -straightening the elbow.C8- bends the fingers.T1-spreads the fingers.T1 –T12 supplies the chest wall & abdominal muscles.L2 bends the hip.L3 straightens the knee.L4 pulls the foot up.L5 wiggles the toes. S1 pulls the foot down.S3,4 and 5 supply the bladder. bowel and sex organs and the anal and other pelvic muscles.

Front 100

What is a rami? a Roolet?

Back 100

Front 101

What is greg's favorite nerve?Cranial nerve X

Back 101

Stimulate Vagus NerveSlows heart rate, respiratory rate, constricts bronchial passageways, increases their secretion, enhances peristalsis.Induces secretomotor activity of the alimentary canal from the esophagus to anal canal but more emphasis on upper 2/3 of GI tract.NOTE-Only talking about the effector function right now--CNX is a mixed nerve—has a sensory component. 80-90% are sensory fibers conveying information about organs back to brain. Creates a loop.

Hint 101

VASOVAGAL syncopeCan be caused by GI illness, pain, stressExcessive activation of vagal nerve during emotional stress—fainting, seizure-like activityParasympathetic system overcompensates. Drop in blood pressure and heart rate.

Front 102

Do a Comparison of Autonomic and Somatic Motor Systems

Back 102

Characteristics of SNSLower motor neurons of SNS (GSE) exert direct control over skeletal muscleAxons are heavily myelinated – conduction of impulse is rapidCharacteristics of ANSANS unit exists as a chain of two motor neurons: preganglionic and postganglionicPreganglionic neurons are slightly myelinated, postganglionic neurons lack myelinConduction of impulse in ANS is slower than in SNSConsiderable divergence exists in the ANS

Front 103

which two locations does the parasympathetic system exit the CNS?

Back 103

The parasympathetic system exits the CNS at two location: from the brain through cranial nerves III, VII, IX, X and the sacrum, making the cranial-sacral system. The cranial nerves innervate all visceral organs until the upper GI, while the sacral portion covers the lower GI and reproductive organs. This system is active during the “rest and repose” response.

Front 104

Which fibers use which types of transmitters?

Back 104

Biochemically for neurotransmitters, preganglionic fibers use acetylcholine and postganglionic use norepinephrine.

Front 105

What are the four major plexuses? What forms the root of the plexus? Why is there so much overlap in innervation? Why might this be useful?

Back 105

The other ANTERIOR RAMI (excluding intercostal nerves) form the PLEXUSES NETWORK or tangle of nerve axons that project to the neck, upper and lower limbs, and pelvis.4 major plexuses-Anterior rami form the roots of the plexusEach plexus contains fibers from several spinal nerves and each limb muscle receives innervation from more than 1 spinal nerve.Backup in case of injury.

Front 106

An infection of what is causing this to happen?

Back 106

Infection of DERMATOMES: Herpes Zoster (shingles) Hurt like hell. More frequent in older patients an immunocompramised individuals. Infection correlates with dermatomes.

Front 107

What is the ORGANIZATION of the PLEXUSES?(5 levels)

Back 107

Root (Ventral Rami)TrunkDivisionChordBranches (nerves)

Front 108

What type of injuries do we see in motor cycle accidents and other trauma? Which part of brachial plexus injury do we see (most common brachial plexus injury)? Hint- C5-C6most common typeyou see "Waiter's tip?"

Back 108

SUPERIOR BRACHIAL PLEXUS INJURY.Injuries to brachial plexus result in paralysis and anesthesia. C5 and C6 injuries may result from excessive increase in the angle between the neck and the shoulder, e.g., being thrown or when excessive force is used at delivery. Resulting condition is known as “waiter’s tip”, the limb hangs by the side in medial rotation and partial extension.

Front 109

Which area of BRACHIAL PLEXUS injuries are less common? How do the happen? What sorts of symptoms can you have?Hint- results in "Klumpke Hand"-C8 and T1

Back 109

INFERIOR BRACHIAL PLEXUS INJURYBasically your arm gets pulled violently upward, and the bottom of your brachial plexus gets stretched out.These types of injuries are more infrequent. Occur when upper limb is suddenly pulled superiorly and affect C8 and T1. Results in a “Clawed Hand” appearance (infants-Klumpke paralysis).

Front 110

What are the (5) big BRACHIAL PLEXUS (upper limb) nerves to know? What do they do?Which one involved in carpal tunnel?

Back 110

BRACHIAL PLEXUS- Major nerves directed to shoulder, arm, forearm and hand:1. Musculocutaneous nerve2. Median nerve* 3. Ulnar nerve4. Radial nerve5. Axillary nerveFormed by the ANTERIOR RAMI of C5- T1 (area of neck to armpit)

Hint 110

Formed by the anterior rami of C5- T1 (area of neck to armpit)Major nerves directed to shoulder, arm, forearm and handMusculocutaneous nerve-innervates biceps brachii (flexor) and some overlying skin (C5,C6,C7)Median nerve-muscles of the anterior forearm (flexor) and thumb and skin of anterior forearm and 2/3 of the hand (C5, C6, C7, C8, T1).Ulnar nerve- muscles of lateral forearm and hand and skin of the fourth and fifth digits (C8,T1).Radial nerve-innervates Triceps brachii and overlying skin (C5,C6,C7,C8,T1). Axillary nerve- innervates the deltoid muscle and skin of shoulder and upper arm (C5,C6)

Front 111

Describe the three letter function classification of neurons (spinal and cranial nerves)? 1. General/ Special2. Somatic/ Visceral3. Afferent/ Efferant

Back 111

3 letter system for classification of nervesG=General-types of neurons found in both spinal and cranial nervesS=Special-types of neurons only found in cranial nerves not spinal nerves (taste)S=Somatic-types of neurons innervating structures derived from somites (muscles, cartilage, tendon, skin, fascia). Think segmental.V=Visceral-types of neurons innervating gut, vascular system, smooth muscle, internal organs and glands.A=Afferent-sensory neuronsE=Efferent-motor neurons to skeletal and smooth muscle, secretomotor neurons to glands.

Front 112

Stare long and hard at this... What are some examples of these the combinations/ classification of neurons

Back 112

GSE-General Somatic Efferent—motor to somatic voluntary skeletal musclesGSA-General Somatic Afferent—sensory to skin, joints, muscle and tendon receptor endings, nasal and oral cavityGVE-General Visceral Efferent—autonomic efferents—motor to smooth muscles in general and smooth muscles of skin (erector pillae muscles) and blood vessels, secretomotor to glands.GVA-General Visceral Afferent--sensory to gut and its derivatives, pharynx, blood vessels, glands, and internal organs.SSA-Special Somatic Afferent—special senses of vision, auditory, vestibularSVA-Special Visceral Afferent—chemical sense of taste and smell.SVE-Special Visceral Efferent—voluntary skeletal muscles derived from branchial arches.

Front 113

How are the muscles, fascia and skin inneravated in the THORAX?

Back 113

T2-T12 INTERCOSTAL NERVES!!Spinal nerves of the body torso-arranged segmentally in series of beltlike patterns.The POSTERIOR/DORSAL RAMI turn posteriorly and penetrate the fasciae, deep muscles, and skin of the back.Anterior rami of spinal nerves T2-T12 form intercostal nervesArranged segmentally between the ribsBranches to muscles, fascia, skin

Front 114

What sorts of symptoms do you need a patient to present before an inaurance company will authorize MRI of the back? How does it change with the area?If patient has an accident- what level will impact the level of function....Hint- think about the myotomes.

Back 114

C3,4 and 5- supply the diaphragm C5-supplies the shoulder muscles and the muscle that we use to bend our elbow .C6 -bending the wrist back.C7 -straightening the elbow.C8- bends the fingers.T1-spreads the fingers.T1 –T12 supplies the chest wall & abdominal muscles.L2 bends the hip.L3 straightens the knee.L4 pulls the foot up.** foot drop/ sciaticaL5 wiggles the toes. S1 pulls the foot down.S3,4 and 5 supply the bladder. bowel and sex organs and the anal and other pelvic muscles.

Front 115

What happens if you cut the PHRENIC NERVE?Where is the Phrenic nerve located? Which plexsus?

Back 115

CERVICAL PLEXUSFormed by anterior rami of C1-C4/5.Most of the branches innervate the skin of neck and deep neck muscles.Phrenic nerve (C3, C4, C5) innervates the top of the diaphragm. If both phrenic nerves are cut or the spinal cord is severed at C3, breathing stops.

Front 116

What are the (2) major branches of the LUMBAR PLEXUS?How would Diabetes affect the lumbar plexus?

Back 116

Front 117

Which plexus is affected when you have sciatica? When/ why/ where does this happen?

Back 117

In the military 80-100lbs backpacks...

Front 118

Which level is the ONLY spinal nerve level that does not participate in dermatomes?

Back 118

C1- only exceptionALL (OTHER) SPINAL NERVES PARTICIPATE IN DERMATOMES...(area of skin innervated from single spinal nerve)

Front 119

DRAW OUT how the NERVOUS SYSTEM is organized

Back 119

Front 120

What is the primary action of the pronator teres?

Back 120

pronation

Front 121

How many muscles make up the quadriceps muscles? What are they?

Back 121

QUADriceps = (4 mucles)1.) RECTUS FEMORIS- occupies the middle of the thigh, covering most of the other three quadriceps muscles. It originates on the ilium. It is named from its straight course.The other three lie deep to rectus femoris and originate from the body of the femur, which they cover from the trochanters to the condyles:2.) VASTUS LATERALIS- is on the lateral side of the femur (i.e. on the outer side of the thigh).3.) VASTUS MEDIALIS- is on the medial side of the femur (i.e. on the inner part thigh).4.) VASTUS INTERMEDIUS- lies between vastus lateralis and vastus medialis on the front of the femur (i.e. on the top or front of the thigh), but deep to the rectus femoris. Typically, it cannot be seen without dissection of the rectus femoris.lateral (intermedial) medialhamburger+ hotdog

Front 122

What does the lateral compartment of the inferior leg do? What does the anterior compartment do? Posterior?

Back 122

Front 123

What does the medial compartment of the proximal lower extremeity do?What action(s) do the ANTERIOR compartment do?What about the Posterior compartment?

Back 123

Front 124

Which side of heart do we see more coronary plaques on? Why?

Back 124

The Left side- It's bigger! Has to pump to ENTIRE systemic circut. Larger arteries due to increased metabolic demand.Larger arteries= greater chance of plaque formation

Hint 124

usually harvest SAPHENOUS vein or INTERNAL MAMMARY ARTERY/ [aka THORACIC ARTERY] (minimally invasive) instead for bypass surgery.

Front 125

What are the four main arteries that supply blood to the head neck and brain?Identify the ones marked in pink hereBonus questions-- Which side are we looking at? How can you tell?

Back 125

Four pairs of arteries supply the head1 Common carotid arteries2 Vertebral arteries3 Thyrocervical trunks4 Costocervical trunks

Hint 125

Brachiocephalic artery = right side

Front 126

What is significant about the arteries of the brain? What are they called? What else can travel along the same path to the head and neck as well?

Back 126

CAROTIDS**EXTERNAL CAROTIDartery supplies neck**INTERNAL CAROTID artery has no branches in the neck**Blood supply comes from below**SYMPATHETIC NERVES use int. & ext. carotids to travel to head/neck

Front 127

What artery feeds the menigies? What are some possible problems with this when you bash your skull in?

Back 127

Lots of bleeding (artery very high pressure blood squirting out). Lots of blood building up with no where to go. EXTRADURAL HEMATOMA-- Can damage brain.

Front 128

Which TYPE of arteries (paired or unpaired) are the ONLY ones that feed into the GI Tract? What are their names?

Back 128

UNPAIRED ARTERIES

Front 129

What types of arteries in the abdomen (paired or unparired) supplies blood to everything that is NOT in the GI tract? Name four of them. what do they supply blood to?example??....

Back 129

PAIRED

Hint 129

Gonad arteries are so high because of EMBRYOLOGICAL orgin.

Start high, then descend down.

Front 130

As the ILLIAC artery continues to travel down the body , its name changes to the _______ artery.As the SUBCLAVICULAR artery continues traveling down the arm, its name changes to the to the ________ artery.

Back 130

FEMORAL arteryAXILLARY artery

Front 131

What is the SLIGHT difference in the VENOUS drainage of the blood supply of the ABDOMEN?Hint: left/ rightHint: gonads

Back 131

Right gonadal vein--> Vena CavaLeft gonadal vein--> Renal vein----> Vena cava

Front 132

Cadavers must meet this criteria:

Back 132

o Not pre-embalmed
o Not badly damaged (e.g. trauma)
o No organs donated
o No infectious diseases