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206 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are the two types of respiration?
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external respiration-ventilation, gas exchange between blood and air
internal resp-cellular use of o2, gas exchange between blood and cells |
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How does gas exchange occur?
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through diffusion
-o2 and co2 move down their concentration gradients -blood is brought to equilibrium with air |
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What is the conducting zone and what are its parts?
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brings air to the respiratory zone (lungs)
no gas exchanges takes place -functions are to warm air to body temp, humidifies air, filters clean air Larynx,Trachea, Bronchi |
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Respiratory Epithelia
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secretes mucus that traps small particles in the air
line the conducting zone |
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"black lung"
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Coal dust so fine it passes by muscus and collects in alveoli
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cystic fibrosis
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thick mucus, creates chronic respiratory infections
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What are the two things the lungs provides?
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large surface area
small diffusion distance between air and blood |
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What are the layers of branching in the lungs?
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bronchi -> bronchioles-> alveoli
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Alveoli
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tiny air sac-often clustered at the terminal end of the bronchioles
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Surfactant
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there is naturally surface tension of water pulling alveoli closed, the surfactant disrupts the forces between the water moleules->decreases surface tension
if babies are born prematurely, surfactant isnt developed=difficult breathing |
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how close are alveoli and capillaries to each other?
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one cell thick, seperated by basement membrane and intersitital fluid
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what are pleural membranes?
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two sheets of epithelial cells that line the lungs in the thorasic cavity
-paritetal pluera -outer -visceral pluera-inner |
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Cutaneous sensory recpetors that are sensitive to heat and pain usualy have ___
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free dendrite endings
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fine touch perceptions like in the fingertips is due to
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many cutaneous receptors with small receptive fields
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olfaction and gustation are similar because_____
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they are both examples of chemosensation
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which two inner ear organs use hair cells to sense movement of fluid?
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vestibular apparatus and cochlea
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Rods differ from cones in that they _____
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are more capable of adapting in low light
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CA+ activates muslce contraction by biding to what protein complex in the myofibrils?
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troponin
(protein =actin) |
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Large motor units would be found in which muscles?
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hamstrings (large muscles)
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Smooth muscle differs from skeltal muscle how?
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thin filaments are arranged in a multidirectional network
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Which group of cells are the "pacemakers" of the heart?
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the sinoatrial node (SA)
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The series of canals in the inner ear responsible for equilibrium are known as the _____
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vestibular apparatus
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Which protein is not component of blood plasma?
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hemoglobin
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What increases the sympathetic nervous systems blood pressure?
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increasing heart rate
contracting smooth muscle of veins |
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Which type of capillaries are found in the CNS?
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continuous (Creates blood barrier)
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How do fats travel in the body with LDL's?
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from cells to the liver
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If a person has antibodie antigens in their bodies against A and B they have what type of blood?
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O
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If a person has no antibodies antigens in their bodies they have what type of blood?
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AB
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T/F positive feedback loops are usually part of greater negative feedback loop
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True
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What type of sugar is Sucrose?
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disaccahride
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Which part of the brain regulates respiration, heart rate, and body temp?
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Medulla Oblongata
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Which part of the brain is involved in muscle memory and coordination?
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Cerebellum
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Which part of the brain processes bodily sensations?
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Parietal Lobe
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Sensory information crosses to the contra lateral side of teh brain in what region of the CNS?
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Medulla Oblongata
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Do the PNS neurons travel through the spinal cord?
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NO
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What type of receptors are nicotinic?
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Cholinergic receptors
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What parts are involved in normal, quiet inspiration?
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primary action is diaphragm
intercostals |
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What parts of the body are involved in deep forces inspiration?
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diaphragm
intercostals scalenes, pectoralis sternocleidomastoid |
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Asthma
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obstrcution of air flow due to bronchiole constriction, muscuc production and inflammation
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What are mast cells?
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granulated white blood cells that release histamine (NT-sleep, vasodilation, bronchioconstriction)
numerous in sites of potential injury-nose, mouth, feets, internal surfaces, blood vessles |
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How is asthma treated?
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limit exposure to "triggers"
desensitization medication-metered dose inhalers (Bronchiodilator and corticosteriod) |
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Anaphylactic Shock
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Severe response to a allergen
-stimulation of mast cell degranulation -rapid bronchiole constriction -suffocation |
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Emphysema
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destruction of lung tissue
mostly due to smoking -WBC stimulated to secrete proteolytic enzymes->disgest lung tissue -smaller alveoli collapse -capillaries die -scar tissue forms |
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What is Cystic Fibrosis? Where are the 4 places it affects?
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recessice hereditary disease charaterized by thick mucus.
1-lungs-difficulty breathing, chronic infections 2-pancreas-thickened secretions, digestion problems, diabetic 3-liver-blocked bile ducts 4-reproductive system-men lack vas deferens and women have thickened cervical muscus. |
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Pulmonary Endema
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increased interstitial fluid in lungs
1-cardiac-congestive heart failure due to inefficient blood flow 2-damage to lung tissue |
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bronchitis
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virus, bacteria
inflamtion of bronchioles |
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tubercuosis
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microbacterium
alveoli macrophages, tubercles |
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Pneumonia
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bacterial, viral, fungak, parasitic
alveoli inflamed and fill with fliud |
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What are the main things the endocrine system regulates?
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metabolism, water balance, sleep patterns, digestion, growth, reproduction
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what is the endocrine system? what does it do?
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system of ductless glands
secrete hormones-chemical messenger that carries a signal to target cells though the blood |
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Pineal gland
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melatonin, regulates hypothalamus and pituitary
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hypothalamus
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regulates pituitary
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pituitary
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anterior-growth, regulates other endocrine glands
posterior-kidney, uterus |
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thyroid
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metabolism, all organs
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thymus
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t-cell production and stimulation
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adrenal gland
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medulla-adrenaline
cortex-liver gluclose, kidney, osmolarity |
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pancreas
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insulin and glucogon
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ovaries
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estrogen and progesterone
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testes
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testosterone
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How is the heart a part of the endocrine system?
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atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
regulates blood pressure by regulating kidney excretion of sodium |
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How is the liver a part of the endocrine system?
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insulin-like growth factor stimulates systemic cell division and growth
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How is the kidneys a part of the endocrine system?
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erythropoietin stiumlates cone marrow to produce red blood cells
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How is adipose tissue a part of the endocrine system?
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Leptin suppresses appetite in hypothalamus
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amines
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modified amino acids
thyrosine and tryptophan can be lipophilic or hydro |
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glycoproteins
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proteins that have carbo modifications
hydrophilic, digestible |
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steriods
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derived from cholesterol
lipophilic, lastingq |
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How do hormones functions?
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a stimulus triggers a gland to secrete it's hormone->enters the blood through capillaries in gland->blood exposes entire body to hormone->only target cellsthat are competent to receive signal are affected
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How do target cells change physiologically during hormone functions?
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1-activates or inhibit enzyme
2-initiates the synthesis of new proteins |
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globular proteins
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carry lipophilic hormones in the blood
-pass through cell membrane -Nuclear hormones receptors transport them to nucleus -NHR acts as a transcription factor-new proteins are made |
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How do second messengers work?
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hydrophilic hormones cannot cross membarne so they bind to receptors
-use second messangers to perform the function ->modify enzyme and active transcription factor |
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Tropic Hormones
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regulate other endocrine glands
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Hydrophilic
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water soluble-peptides, proteins, glycoproteins
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Thyroid-stimulating hormones (TSH)
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stimulates the thyroid gland
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Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
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stimulates the adrenal cortex
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Luteinizing Hormones (LH)
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stimulates the release of steroid hormones in the ovary and testes
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Follicle stimulating hormones (FSH)
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stimulates the maturation of eggs and sperm
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Growth hormone (GH or somatropin)
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stimulates the release of insulin-like growth factors from the liver and other organs.
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prolactin (PRL)
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stimulates milk letdown in females and indirectly affects testosterone secretion in males.
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What tropic hormone is affected by Somatostatin (SS)?
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Growth hormones (inhibits)
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What tropic hormone is affected by Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH)
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Growth hormones
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What tropic hormone is affected by Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
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LH and FSH
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What tropic hormone is affected by Thyrotropin-releasing (TRH)
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TSH
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What tropic hormone is affected by Corticotropin-releasing (CRH)
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ACTH
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What tropic hormone is affected by dopamine?
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Prolactin (inhibits)
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Hyperpituitary
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-increased levels of all pituitary hormones
-hGH has most obvious effects -results in gigantism treated-treat tumor, reduce hormones medicinally |
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Acromegaly
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increase hGH in adults
-increase growth of hands, feet, jaw, brow, tounge -heart problems -arthritis, diabetes |
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hypopituitary
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Low hGH
-in children-short, late puberty, decreased energy, low muscle tone and bone mass -in adults-reduced bone and muscle mass, depression, increased body fat, increase cholesterol, reduced energy and libido |
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posterior pituitary
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hormones are produced in the cell bodies of neuroendocrine neurons in the hypothalmus
-axons secrete hormones in pp |
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Antidiuretic Hormone
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produced in the P. Pituitary
stimulates kidney to retain water |
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Oxytocin
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stimulates mammary glands to releace milk
stimulates uterus to contract during labor |
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iodine defenciency
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decrese t4
casues high levels of TSH |
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graves disease
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autoimmune system attacks itself
bulging eyes hyperthryoid |
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cretinism
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hypothyroid in children
-mental and physical retardation -can be reversed with thyroxine |
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WHat are the 4 main functions of the urinary system?
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1-regulate blood plasma
2-concentrate waste from blood 3-regulate salt concentration 4-regulate blood pH |
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kidney cortex
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outer portion where fluid first enters kidneys
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kidney medulla
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inner portion where filtered fluid id returned to the blood>
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where do arteries and veins enter and exit the kidney?
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hilum
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where does the waste collect in the kidney?
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renal pelvis "basin"
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renal pyramid
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bordered by renal columns
-waste from teh collecting tubes enters the pelvis through a common minor calyx -nephrons loop up and down between the cortex and medulla |
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what are the three parts of the nephrons?
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glomerular capsule-first interface with capiliaries main location of filtration
proximal convoluted tubules-single layer of epithelial cells with lots of microvilli for reabsorption Loop of henle |
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what are the different parts of the loop of henle?
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descending-permeable to water
ascending-impermeable to water thick-actively pumps ions thin-does not pump ions |
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what is the blood flow processes through the kidneys?
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renal artery->kidney through the hilum->interlobar arteries travel to cortex in the renal colmns->arcuate arteries loop between interlobar arteries in cortex->interlobar arterioles branch->interlobular, arcuate and interlobar veins follow same pathway out.
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how does filtrations happen in the kidneys?
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the BP forces plasma out glomerulus capillaeries into nephron
-the salts, gluclose, metabolites go with the plasma |
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How does reabsorption work in the kidneys?
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body selectivly reabsorbs water and salts while leaving waste
-thick regions activly pump out Na, K, Cl->creates a concentration gradient. -water moves out with the salts -concentrates waste into small volume of water |
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glomeruluar filtration rate (GFR)
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volume of filtrate produces by both kidneys per minutes
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WHat hormone stimulates the reabsorption of water in the collecting tube?
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ADH
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What hormones decreases the amount of NA pumped out in thick tubules?
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ANH
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what is Nephropathy?
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damage to kidneys
-decreased filtration -leakage of proteins into urine |
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what are the symptoms of Nephropathy?
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lethergy (anemia, urea buildup)
edema (increased interstitial fluid) |
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What are the causes of Nephropathy?
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diabetes
high BP |
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How do you treat Nephropathy?
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renal replacement treatment (artificial filtration)
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diabetes
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increased amount of gluclose in urine
-increased urination, excessive thirst -deterioration of glomeruli due to gluclose poisoning increased BP |
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hemodialysis
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semi-permeable membrane-through osmosis
dialysis fluid is hypotonic |
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hemofiltration
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net water and solute loss
replace water and solutes with artificial plasma at physiological levels |
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peritoneal dialysis
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done several times a day
better than on PD than with hemo keeps kidneys functioning -greater risk of infection, not as efficient, fluid leaks, hernia |
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Goblet cells
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outer cells, alkaline mucus protection from acid
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parietal cells
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middle cells of gastric gland
secrete HCL |
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cheif cells
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lower cells of gastric glands
secrete pepsiogen |
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ECL cells
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secrete histamine and seratonin
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G cells
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serete gastrin
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D cells
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secrete somatostatin
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What do the Duodenum and Jejunum absorb?
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carbs, lipids, proteins, calcium, iron
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What does lleum absorb?
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B vitamins, electrocytes, water
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What does large intestine absorb?
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water, electrocytes, Vit K, folic acid
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What are the three functions of the large intestine?
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plant start digestion
Vit K production Folic acid production |
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Metabolism
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the complete set of chemical reactions in the body
most steps are catalysted by enzymes |
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Anabolism
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builds larger molecules from smaller ones
cell divison and growth |
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catabolism
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breakdown on large molecules into smaller ones
digestion of food in gut |
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Basal Metabolic Rate
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how quickly the body performs is metabolis processes
measured by heat production or oxygen consumed or daily caloire requirements |
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What is the resting BMR?
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maintain body temp, heart beat, maintain posture, digest food, filter blood
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What is BMR determined by?
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sex, age, body size
genetics, thyroid physical activity muscle to fat ration |
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essential amino acids
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20 total
Nine cannot be made by the body |
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what regulates the appetite?
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hypothalamus damage
-ventramedial-overeating -lateral regions-decreased appetite NT -endorphins-supress overeating norepiniphrine-induces overeating |
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white adipose cells
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single large fat vacuole
few mitochondiras-low meta rate found in peritoneum or subcutaneously |
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brown adipose cells
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mutile small fat vacuoles
many mitos near kidneys/adrenals, chest and neck fewer number of ATP produced per calorie used |
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Ghrelin
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hormone secreted by the empty stomach
stimulates hunger |
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essential amino acids
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20 total
Nine cannot be made by the body |
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what regulates the appetite?
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hypothalamus damage
-ventramedial-overeating -lateral regions-decreased appetite NT -endorphins-supress overeating norepiniphrine-induces overeating |
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white adipose cells
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single large fat vacuole
few mitochondiras-low meta rate found in peritoneum or subcutaneously |
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brown adipose cells
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mutile small fat vacuoles
many mitos near kidneys/adrenals, chest and neck fewer number of ATP produced per calorie used |
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Ghrelin
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hormone secreted by the empty stomach
stimulates hunger from the hypothalamaus |
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Cholecystokinin (CCK)
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hormone secreted by active intestines
stimulates feeling of satiety (fullness) from hypothalamus |
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diploid
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44 autosomes (22maternal, 22 paternal)
2 sex chromosomes (x,x or x,y) |
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Haploid
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gametes-egg and sperm
22 autosomes 1 sex chromo |
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barr body
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the inactivated x chromo
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sex determination
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sex-determining region of y (SRY)
enyzymes of test and estr receptors for hormones |
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what hormones are active during puberty?
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Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH)-released from the hypo->
ant. pitu-Luteinizing hormone and follicle stimulating hormone->> stikulates gonads to produce and release test/est->>> secondary sex charateristics |
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Leydig Cells
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produce testosterone in response to LH->test levels stimulate production of sperm in Seminiferous Tubules
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Where is testosterone produced?
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Seminiferous Tubules
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What are the main androgens of the reproductive system?
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Dehydropiandrosterone (DHEA)-adrenal gland--Creates->>
Androstenedione-testes and ovaries-->> testosterone-->>> Dihydrotestosterone (DHT)-more active than test-male secondary sex characteristics |
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Spermatogenia
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germ cells
asymmetric divison, replaces the cell-inexhaustable |
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Sertoli Cell
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FSH stimulates the concentration of testosterone
supplies developing sperm with nutrients |
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How is sperm transported to the exit?
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epididymis-sperm maturation and storage->
vas deferens-transport-> Seminal Vesicles-secretions contain enzymes, fructose, mucus-> prostrate-swells and secretes alkaline solution-> urethra-exit |
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oogonia
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germ cells that migrate into the gonads-400 ovulated
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how is an egg fertilized?
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sperm is stored in inactive epididymis
becomes active in semen unable to fertilize an egg just after ejaculation capacitation happens inside the female |
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acrosomal reaction
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contact with zona pellucide begins it
membranes fuse protease released bare nucleus exposed |
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How does the egg block from multiple sperm?
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1-fast block-calcium release=electric shock
2-slow block-vesicles near egg plasma membrane exocytose-release enzymes zona pellucide becomes fertilization envelope -sperm cant go in |
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What is a positive feedback loop?
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usually part of a larger feedback loop
found within negative loop and makes it more effective |
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disaccaride
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two monosacarides
sucrose |
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what does the medulla oblongata do?
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regulates respiration
heart rate body temp |
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what does the cerebellum do?
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involved in coordination and muscle memory
recieve input from tendons and muslces-linmks to cordination |
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what does the parietal lobe do?
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processes bodily sensations
perception and sensations |
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All of the following are tropic hormones except
A. Growth hormone B. Antidiuretic Hormone C. Luteinizing Hormone D. Follicle-stimulating hormone |
b
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2. Which part of the loop of Henle is permeable to water and actively pumps ions?
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Descending, thick
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1. As food travels down the esophagus, what is the next landmark it will pass through?
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Cardiac Sphincter
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If you were to take a B vitamin supplement, where would the majority of the absorption take place?
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Ileum
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The Luteinizing hormone (LH), serves what function?
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d. stimulates the release of of steroid hormones in the ovary and testes.
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Which functions does the conducting zone do:
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a. humidifies air
b. filters and cleans air d. warms air to body temp |
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How does myelination affect nerve conduction velocity?
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a. increases it
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2) What is isometric contraction?
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when a muscle attempts to move a load that is more than the force generated by the muscle
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1) The thick loop of Henle...
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c. Actively pumps ions
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Which is NOT a characteristic of brown adipose cells:
a. Found subcutaneously b. Has many mitochondria c. Multiple small fat vacuoles d. Fewer number of ATP produced per calorie used compared to white adipose cells. |
a
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Which of the following is not a function or action of the endocrine system?
a. the secretion of hormones b. regulation of our metabolism c. regulate blood pressure d. the regulation of water balance |
c
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which of the following is not true about secretory cells?
a. chief cells secrete pepsinogen b. parietal cells secrete hydrochloric acid c. goblet cells produce protection in the form of mucus d. d cells secrete gastrin |
d
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What is Albumin?
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1) main protein in egg whites
2) main protein in cow’s milk 3) main protein in blood plasma |
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what major functions do the blood have?
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1) transport
2) regulation 3) protection |
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Which germ layer is responsible for muscle and organ tissues in the body?
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b. Mesoderm
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what distinguishs Cardiac muscle from Skeletal muscle?
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shorter, gap junctions, and brached
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n the "fight or flight" response of the sympathetic nervous system what change occurs in the heart?
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A: Increased beats per minute
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Q: How do micelles help to remove oil from rags?
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By using their de-polarized inside to draw the oil out of the water.
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When fats are being digested, what is the best answer to describe the changes in their location as they systematically are transported from their origins in the GI tract?
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Micelles, Lymph & Chylomicrons, Subclavian &LDLS, Liver, Organs
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This type of leukocyte is the most numerous of the a-granular type?
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A) lymphocytes
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. How can sudden fainting during a choir concert or wedding be explained by "peripheral resistance"? Which nervous system usually regulates this?
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Peripheral resistance is the resistance to blood flow through the arterial system. The majority of this resistance is due to the small radius of the small arteries and arterioles. Resistance is also caused by viscosity of blood and length of the vessel. During long periods of standing (like in a choir concert of wedding), “locking your knees” limits the amount of blood pumped back up to the heart by the skeletal muscles via the veins, and thus more peripheral resistance, and thus less oxygen is replenished. Sympathetic nerves set the resting “tone” of arteries and signal fight or flight, both of which determine the constriction of arteries which effects peripheral resistance.
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Why is diabetes known as the "sweet smelling urine disease"? What other traits are associated with diabetes?
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Glucose is present in the urine of a diabetic, thus the “sweet smelling urine”. Diabetes is caused by either a lack of sufficient insulin secretion or by inadequate responsiveness of the target tissues to the effects of insulin.
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Give a brief definition of alveoli.
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air sacs in the lungs often clustered at the end of the bronchioles.
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Name two lung disorders we talked about in class
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Emphysema and Cystic Fibrosis
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Which digestive enzyme is not contained in pancreatic juice?
a. Lactase b. Trypsin c. Salivary amylase d. Lipase |
c-salivary amylase
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The sympathetic nervous system elicits all of the following responses except:
a. Increased heart rate b. Constriction of pupils of eyes c. Erector pilli in skin force hair to stand up d. Increased blood glucose levels |
B. constriction of pupils of eyes
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In the process of urine formation, which of the four things is NOT
regulated by the kidneys? > (a) the volume of blood plasma > (b) the concentration of urine in the blood > (c)the concentration of electrolytes in the plasma > (d)the Ph of plasma |
b
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The basal metabolic rate is determined primarily by what?
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thyroxine
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: Describe the path fluid takes through a nephron.
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1.The Glomerular capsule is responsible for the Glomeruluar filtration rateGFR it leaves waste (urine) to go into the rest of the tubule.
2. The fluid then passes through into the lumen of the Proximal Convoluted Tubule, which is made up of microvilli that increase the surface area making resabsorption possible. The proximal tubule pumps Na+ in and out in order to absorb H2O. 3. Fluid then goes on into the Loop of Henle, the descending limb is in the medulla and is permeable to water and pumps ions, fluid then goes onto the ascending limb in the cortex which is impermeable to water, is controlled by the body, and filters out anything the body does not want. The Loop of Henle creates equilibrium by the constant movement of water out to the kidneys. 4. Next the fluid enters the distal convoluted tubule, which does not contain as many microvilli as the proximal tubule, so it does not participate in reabsorption. 5. The distal tubule empties into a collecting duct, where ADH stimulates it to absorb H20 only if it contains aquaporins. The more ADH present means the H20 has more aquaporins. |
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Name the 4 phases of Mitosis and their key event
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1. Prophase: The 2 centrosomes move apart to opposite sides of the cell with spindle fibers starting to extend from each. The nucleus disappears.
2. Metaphase: The chromosomes line up along the equator of the cell. The nuclear membrane disappears. 3. Anaphase: The chromosomes split and are pulled to opposite sides of the cell, spindle fibers shorten 4. Telophase: The cytoplasm divides and forms two cells. |
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Which of the following are the walls of the vasa recta not permeable to?
A. Water B. Plasma Proteins C. Urea D. NaCl |
plasma proteins
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What can thick mucus in the pancreas a patient with Cystic Fibrosis cause?
A, Chronic Infections B. Difficulty breathing C. Blocked bile ducts D. Digestion problems |
digestion problems
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Which Secetory cells secrete Hydrochloric acid?
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parietal cells
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Which of the following are not support cells of the CNS?
a) astrocytes b) microglia c) satellite cells d) ependymal cells |
satellite cells
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Light is refracted the most at which part of the eye?
a) cornea b) retina c) pupil d) sclera |
cornea
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__________ waves move masticated food down the esophagus.
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peristaltic
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The optic disc, or blind spot,
a. Lacks photoreceptors b. Is a site of entry and exit of blood vessels c. Is the white of the eyes d. Both a. and b. |
both a and b
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A treppe can be described as
a. A staircase effect. b. The relaxation time between successive twitches that will get shorter and shorter as the strength of contraction increases in amplitude c. A smooth sustained contraction. d. None of the above. |
a staircase effect
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Low-density lipoproteins do the following in the body:
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transport cholesterol to various organs in the body
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Muscle fatigue is defined as...
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defined as any exercise-induced reduction in the ability of a muscle to generate force or power
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The human eye contains three types of cones which are:
a.Blue cones, Yellow cones, and Red cones b.S cones, M cones, and L cones c.Blue cones, Green cones, and Red cones d.Both b. and c. |
both b and c
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Which of the following is NOT a structure in the inner ear?
a.Cochlea b.Utricle c.Stapes d.Vestibular apparatus |
stapes
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Which protein connects to the actin during the power stroke?
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d. Myosin Head
The myosin head releases the Pi of the hydrolyzed ATP creating the power stroke. |
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Which part of the brain controls voluntary movement?
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a. Frontal Lobe
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