Philosophy Of Human Nature

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A priori

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Something is a priori if it is prior to human experience. There is no experience that confirms that modus ponens is a valid argument form; it is known a priori.

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Accident

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An accident is that which can only exist in something else and which is always said of something else. Red, next to, yesterday and good are all examples of accidents. Compare with Substance.

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Actuality (Aristotle)

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Actuality is the word to describe what some matter is (or is doing) at some particular moment. Right now, my flesh and bones are actually a person (i.e. They are an actual person). But potentially my flesh and bones are food for worms. Also see potentiality.

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Affirming the Consequent

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A fallacy of the form:
If A, then B.
B.
Therefore, A.
Example:
If Spiderman eats too many tacos, he will gain weight.
Spiderman has gained weight.
Therefore: Spiderman ate too many tacos.
Note the fallacy: Spiderman might have gained weight from eating too much pizza.

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Argument

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An argument is a collection of statements, some of which are claimed to provide support for, or reasons to believe, one of the others.

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Conclusion

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A sentence in an argument that is intended to follow, either necessarily or probably, from the premises. Often introduced by a word like "Therefore" or "So."

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Constructive Dilemma

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A valid argument of the form:
1. A or B.
2. If A, then P.
3. If B, then Q.
Therefore: P or Q.
Example:
Taylor Swift will write a song or she will record a song.
If Taylor Swift writes a song, she will be rich.
If Taylor Swift records a song, she will be famous.
Therefore: Taylor Swift will be rich or she will be famous.

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Deductive Argument

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A deductive argument is an argument that purports that if all the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. Contrast with Inductive Argument.

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Denying the Antecedent

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A fallacy of the form:
If A, then B.
Not A, therefore, not B.
Such an argument can never be valid. For example:
If the Giants win every game, they will win the Super Bowl.
The Giants did not win every game, therefore they did not win the Super Bowl.
(Note that in the 2011-12 Football Season, the Giants did not win every game they played; they did win the Super Bowl).

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Disjunctive Syllogism

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A valid argument of the form:
1. A or B
2. Not A.
Therefore: B.
Example:
Santa Claus will bring you toys or he will bring you coal.
Santa Claus will not bring you coal.
Therefore: Santa Clause will bring you toys.

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Epistemology

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Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that deals with questions of knowledge: What is knowledge? How does it come about? When is it legitimate to believe something?

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Ex hypothesi

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One reasons ex hypothesi by suspending questions about the truth of premises or assumptions. Consider the following argument:
All mermaids are beautiful.
There is a mermaid in my back yard.
Therefore, there is something beautiful in my back yard.
To debate the merits (like validity and soundness) of the above argument, or to decide how to proceed, I might ask that it first be granted that the existence and beauty of mermaids be granted ex hypothesi.

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Fallacy

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An argument that might at first appear to be convincing, but which is not valid (for deductive arguments) or strong (for inductive arguments).

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Forms, Theory Of

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Plato's theory that the highest reality is one of immaterial, abstract and ideal entities (forms), which our material world of particular things participates in.

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Four Causes

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Aristotle's theory that there are four ways to answer the question "why did this thing come to be this thing?"
Material Cause
Formal Cause
Efficient Cause
Final Cause (Telos)

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Hypothetical Syllogism

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A valid argument of the form:
If A, then B.
If B, then C.
Therefore, if A, then C (Or: A, therefore C).
Example:
If the soul is like the forms, then it is immaterial.
If something is immaterial, it is indestructible.
Therefore: If the soul is like the forms, then it is indestructible.

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Inductive Argument

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An inductive argument purports that if all the premises are true, the conclusion is probably true (but possibly not).

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Matter (Aristotle)

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That out of which something comes to be. It is the potential principle which becomes actualized by form. For example, the bronze of a statue.

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Metaphysics

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Metaphysics is the philosophical investigation of being in general (instead of some particular kind of being).

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Modus Ponens

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A valid argument of the form:
If A, then B.
A.
Therefore, B.
Example:
Socrates argues:
1. If I make my defense using the language I ordinarily use in the streets, then you ought to only pay attention to whether what I say is true.
2. I do make my defense using the language I ordinarily use in the streets.
3. Therefore, you ought to only pay attention to whether what I say is true.

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Modus Tollens

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A valid argument of the form:
If A, then B.
Not B.
Therefore, not A.
An example is as follows:
If someone intentionally corrupts his neighbor, he tries to harm himself.
No one tries to harm himself.
Therefore, no one intentionally corrupts his neighbor.

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Ontological Argument

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An ontological argument for God's existence is an argument which begins from a definition or idea of God and then tries to show that God's existence is self-evident. In other words, it does not rely on features of the universe but on meanings of words.

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Ontology

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Ontology is a branch of philosophy that discusses what the broadest categories of existence are and what it means to say that a thing exists. It is closely related to metaphysics, the study of being in general.

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Phantasm

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Sense image.

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Philosophy

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(Lit. "The love of wisdom") The systematic investigation of questions whose solutions cannot be determined empirically or in the specific sciences.

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Potentiality (Aristotle)

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Potentiality describes what some matter can be but currently is not. A block of marble is potentially a statue. It does not become actually a statue until a sculptor alters the matter. Also see Actuality.

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Predicate (verb)

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To say something of something else. For example, I can predicate "red" of an apple, "movie star" of Jennifer Aniston, and "big" of the ocean.

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Premise

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A sentence in an argument that is intended to give support for, or reason to believe, the conclusion.

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Reification

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Reification is when a person claims that something abstract is an individual thing with independent existence. Plato reified definitions by positing the existence of forms.

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Soul

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According to Aristotle and Aquinas, the soul is the form of a living thing; living things differ from inanimate things by virtue of the soul, just like knives differ from other tools by virtue of having the form of a cutting thing.
For Aquinas, only human souls are subsistent. For Aristotle, even the human soul might not be subsistent.

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Soundness

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A sound argument is an argument that is valid and whose premises are all true. The conclusion of a sound argument will always be true.

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Subsists (subsistence)

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Something subsists (or is a subsistence) if its existence does not immediately depend on the existence of another thing. My ideas cease to exist if I die because they can only exist as long as I do: So my ideas do not subsist. However, I can continue to exist regardless of what ever might be destroyed. (Even should you destroy the planet, I could, in theory, travel into space and continue to exist). The only way I can stop existing is if I am myself destroyed.

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Substance (Aristotle)

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A substance is the thing of which other things (accidents) may be said, but which is itself not said of anything. This individual person and this individual horse are both examples of substances.

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Telos

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The telos is the purpose or final cause of a thing.

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Thomism

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Pertaining to the thought of St. Thomas Aquinas.

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Tripartite Soul

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Plato's theory that the soul consists of three "parts:" The appetite, the rational part, and the spirited part.

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Validity

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A valid argument is a deductive argument whose conclusion cannot be false if the premises are all true. Do not confuse with soundness.