Neuroscience

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active during the daytime, sleep when its dark

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Diurnal

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day-night found in most animals

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circadian rhythm

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Why did diurnal rhythm evolve?

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to maximize food acquisition during the day when we see best

minimize energy expenditure during night when we do not see well

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combination of medical disorders (e.g. obesity, insulin abnormalities) that increase risk of cardiovascular disease and diabetes

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metabolic syndrome

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what disrupts our circadian rhythm?

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artificial lighting (extension of waking hours into night)

easy food sources (eat meals at any time)

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what can disrupt synchrony of our biological clocks?

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irregular sleeping and eating

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metabolic syndrome can cause what?

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altered metabolic rate

plasma glucose

pancreatic insulin secretion

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inherent timing mechanism that controls or initiates various biological processes.

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Biorhythm

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Is human behavior governed more by daily cycles or seasonal cycles?

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daily cycles

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Which animals are more affected by seasonal changes, animals living near the poles or animals living near equator?

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animals living in equatorial regions

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What is linked to the cycle of days and seasons produced by the Earth's rotation around the sun?

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Biorhythm

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What is meant by rhythms are endogenous?

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control comes from within

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neural system that times behavior, allows animals to anticipate events before they happen

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Biological clock

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birds migrate before it gets cold is an example of??

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Biological clock

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Is plant movement exogenous or endogenous?

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movement of the plant is endogenous. it is caused by an internal clock that matches the temporal passage of a real day

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time required to complete a cycle of activity

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period

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yearly; example: migratory cycles of birds

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circannual

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daily; human sleep-wake cycle

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circadian

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less than a day; human eating cycles

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ultradian

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more than a day; human menstrual cycle

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infradian

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rhythm of the body's own devising in the absence of all external cues

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free-running rhythm

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what regulates sleep-wake behavior in humans?

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endogenous biological clock

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environmental event that entrains biological rhythms; a "time giver"

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Zietgeber

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determines or modifies the period of a biorhythm

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entrainment

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a biological clock reset by a zeitgeber is said to be______________

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entrained

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When does entrainment work best?

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when adjustment to biological clock is not too large

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What is the graveyard shift?

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working from 11pm-7am (period of normal sleep)

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The development of insomnia, diabetes, breast cancer, heart attacks, headaches, stress, fatigue, obesity can increase due to what?

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shift work

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Fatigue and disorientation from rapid travel through time zones and exposure to a changed light-dark cycle

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Jet lag

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the use of electrolytic lesions found that ablation of the hypothalamus led to loss of what?

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circadian rhythms

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main pacemaker of circadian rhythms located at the base of the hypothalamus, just above the optic chiasm

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suprachiasmatic nucleus

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known as the master clock

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suprachiasmatic nucleus

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what other areas display clocklike activity?

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intergeniculate leaflet (thalamus)

pineal gland

nearly every cell has its own clock

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Timing of the rhythm must be set, but how do cell synchronize their activity?

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through inhibitory GABA synapses in relation to each other and to Zeigebers

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neural route from a subset of cone receptors in the retina to the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus; allows light to entrain the rhythmic activity of the SCN

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Retinohypothalamic pathway

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individual differences in circadian activity

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Chronotype

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hormone secreted by the pineal gland during the dark phase of the day-night cycle; influences daily and seasonal biorhythms

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melatonin

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a neural structure responsible for producing rhythmic behavior

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biological clock

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responsible for circadian rhythms

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SCN

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retain rhythmicity when disconnected from other brain structures from the brain, and cultured in a dish for several generations

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SCN neurons

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small-amplitude (height) waves with a fast frequency (repetition period; 15 to 30 Hz); muscle tone, eyes move

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Beta Rhythm (waking state); excited

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large-amplitude waves, slow frequency (7 to 11 Hz); muscles have tone, eyes not moving

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Alpha rhythm (drowsy state); relaxed, eyes closed

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slow, large EEG waves (1-3 Hz); associated with deep sleep (NREM); muscle tone, no eye movement

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Delta rhythm sleeping state; deep sleep

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fast brainwave pattern displayed by the neocortical EEG record during sleep; muscle inactivity except for twitches and eye movements

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REM sleep; dreaming state

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What dominates early sleep periods?

...later periods?

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NREM

REM

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-decrease in body temperature

-increase in growth hormone release

-decrease in heart rate

-movements (tossing and turning)

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NREM

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Dreams are more vivid in what type of sleep?

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REM

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Sleeptalking, sleepwalking, and night terrors are associated with what kind of sleep?

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NREM

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eyes move

fingers, toes, mouths twitch

paralized

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REM

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no tone; condition of complete muscle inactivity produced by the inhibition of motor neurons by sleep regions of our brainstem

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Atonia

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-mechanisms that regulate body temperature stop working

-body temperature moves toward room temperature

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REM

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brief, very frightening dreams, may be experienced by children, occur in NREM sleep

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Night terrors

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Who said this:

dreams are the symbolic fulfillment of unconscious wishes

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Sigmund Freud

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loosely connected series of bizarre images and actions

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manifest content

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true meaning of the dream

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latent content

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dreams are expressions of our "collective unconscious"(history of human race)

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Carl jung

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How many stages are involved in shallow to deep sleep?

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4 Stages

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Atonia is associated with what type of sleep?

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REM

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What is the dream hypothesis that states that dreams are not meaningful, but simply a byproduct of the brain’s state ofexcitation during REM sleep

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Activation-synthesis hypothesis

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what is the dream hypothesis that states that dreams evolved as mechanism tocope with threats from environment

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Evolutionary hypothesis

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What are the three contemporary explanations for sleep?

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Biological adaptation

Restorative process

Support for memory

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recurring cycle of temporal packets, about 90 minute periods in humans, during which an animal's level of arousal waxes and wanes

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Basic rest-activity cycle (BRAC)

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What are the two possible hypotheses for sleep as a restorative process?

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1. Chemical events that provide energy to cells may be reduced during waking and are replenished during sleep

2. Fatigue and alertness may simply be aspects of the circadian rhythms and have nothing to do with wear and tear on the body

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acute or chronic condition of not having enough sleep

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sleep-deprivation

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What contributed to the Three Mile Island, Chernobyl, Exxon Valdez disasters?

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Partial sleep-deprivation

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less sleep than normal (e.g. 3-4 hours sleep/night)

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Partial sleep deprivation

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What was the disastrous effect of Three mile island?

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partial nuclear meltdown

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what was the disastrous effect of Chernobyl?

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world's worst nuclear meltdown (result probably due to overtime/overworked; 13 hour shift)

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What was the disastrous effect of Exxon Valdez?

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Tanker oil spill (due to overtime/overworked driver with 22 hour shift)

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What did Randy Gardner obtain a record for?

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stayed awake for 264 hours (11 days)

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brief period of sleep lasting a second or so; confounding factor in cognitive performance following sleep deprivation

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Microsleep

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Rapid eye movement sleep

random movements of eyes

low muscle tone

vivid dreams

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REM sleep

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Which study involves selectively waking up subject whenever they enter REM sleep?

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REM-sleep deprivation studies

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What is the main finding from REM-sleep deprivation studies?

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subjects show an increased tendency to enter REM sleep in later sleep sessions, harder to keep depriving them of REM sleep

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subjects spend more time in REM sleep in the first available sleep session

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REM rebound

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antidepressants, alcohol and nicotine reduce what type of sleep?

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REM sleep

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What could brainstem damage cause?

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complete loss of REM sleep

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Which type of sleep is involved before waking up?

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REM sleep

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process of stabilizing a memory trace after learning

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Consolidation

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the process of restabilizing a memory trace after the memory is revisited

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Reconsolidation

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Sleep spindles' brief, bursting appearance proposed to represent what?

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instantaneous recall of a memory

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What are two characteristics of wave patterns in stage 2 NREM sleep?

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Sleep spindles

K-complexes

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In NREM (stage 2), what are rapid discharges of electrical activity called?

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sleep spindles

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In NREM (stage 2), what are slower, low amplitude waves called?

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K-complexes

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conscious information, autobiographic memory and knowledge of facts

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Episodic memory (explicit)

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Hippocampal neuron that fires when a rat is in certain location in an environment

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Place cell

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Memory of the previous food-searching experience is being replayed and thus store during_________?

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NREM sleep

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unconscious processes, motor skills learning

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implicit memory

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what type of test involves participants having to push a button each time a positional marker was illuminated?

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Serial reaction time test

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what imaging technique was used to measure brain activity while participants were trained on the reaction-time test?

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PET

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What did PET imaging reveal during the reaction time test?

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the same brain regions that were active during the task were also active during REM sleep

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Ability to sleep with one cerebral hemisphere at a time while the other hemisphere is awake; present in birds, aquatic mammals

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Unhemispheric sleep

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what are examples of sleep-inducing chemicals?

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sedative hypnotics, morphine

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Sleep survives after removal of what?

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Pineal gland

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what does not cause sleep, but contributes to sleepiness?

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Melatonin

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large reticulum (mixture of cell nuclei and nerve fibres) that runs through the centre of the brainstem

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Reticular activating system

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what brain structure is associated with sleep-wake behavior and behavioral arousal?

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Reticular activating system

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Damage to this area can result in a coma.

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Reticular Activating system

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which brain structure contains cholinergic cells that secrete acetylcholine onto neocortical neurons that stimulate a waking EEG (beta) rhythm

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Basal forebrain

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which brain structure contains serotonin neurons that project diffusely to the neocortex, also stimulates beta rhythms

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Median raphe nucleus (midbrain)

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cholinergic nucleus in the dorsal brainstem having a role in REM sleep behaviors; projects to the medial pontine reticulum; initiates REM sleep and REM-related behaviors

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Peribrachial area

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nucleus in the pons participating in REM sleep; projects to several other brain areas that produce REM-related beahviors

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Medial pontine reticular formation

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a medical disorder of the sleep patterns of a person or animal; some are serious enough to interfere with noraml physical, mental, social, and emotional functioning

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sleep disorder

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disorder of slow-wave sleep resulting in prolonged inability to sleep

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insomnia

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what are some examples of causes of insomnia

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anxiety

depression

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condition resulting from continuous use of "sleeping pills"; drug tolerance also results in deprivation of either REM or NREM sleep, leading the user to increase the drug dosage

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drug-dependency insomnia

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slow-wave sleep disorder in which a person uncontrollably falls asleep at inappropriate times

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Narcolepsy

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inability to move during sleep owing to the brain's inhibition of motor neurons

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Sleep paralysis

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form of narcolepsy linked to strong emotional stimulation in which an animal loses all muscle activity or tone, as if in REM sleep, while awake

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Cataplexy

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Dreamlike event at the beginning of sleep or while a person is in a state of cataplexy

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hypnogogic hallucination

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sleep disorder characterized by unpleasant sensations in legs described as creeping, crawling, tingling, pulling, or pain

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restless legs syndrome

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how is restless legs syndrome treated?

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dopamine agonists, or L-dopa

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inability to breathe during sleep, person has to wake up to breathe

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sleep apnea

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what are treatments for sleep apnea?

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surgery, weight loss, face masks that deliver negative pressure to open airway