Lifespan Exam 1

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science of human development

Back 1

seeks to understand how and why people (all kind, everywhere, of every age) change over time

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1. Begin with curiosity - on the basis of theory, prior research, a personal observation, pose a question

2. Develop a hypothesis - shape the question into a *hypothesis*

3. Test the hypothesis - design and construct research to gather *empirical evidence*

4. Draw conclusions - use the evidence to support of refute the hypothesis

5. Report the results - share the data, conclusions, and alternative explanations

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5 Steps of the Scientific Method

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hypothesis

Back 3

a specific prediction that can be tested

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empirical evidence

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data

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replication

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repeating the procedure and methods of a study with different participants

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nature

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refers to the influence of genes that people inherit

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nuture

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refers to environmental influence, beginning with the health and diet an embryo's mother and continuing lifelong

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discontinuity

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change can occur rapidly and dramatically

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continuity

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growth can be gradual

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critical period

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time when certain things must happen for normal development (discontinuity)

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sensitive period

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a particular developments occurs more easily at a certain time (continuity)

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1. Multidirectional

2. Multi-contextual

3. Multicultural

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Elements of Lifespan Development

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multidirectional

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multiple changes in every direction characterizes the life span

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multi-contextual

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development that takes place in many contexts, including physical surrounding (climate, noise, population density) and family configurations (married, couple, single parent, extended family)

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multicultural

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developmental science studies people from across cultures

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ecological systems approach

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each person is affected by many social contexts and interpersonal interactions; created by Bronfenbrenner

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1. Microsystems - each person’s immediate surroundings, such as family and peer group

2. Exosystems - local institutions such as school and church

3. Macrosystems - the larger social setting, including cultural values, economic policies, and political processes

4. Mesosystem - connection and interaction of other systems

5. Chronosystem - stresses historical conditions and the time someone lives

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Five Levels of Ecological Systems

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cohort

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all persons born within a few years of one another

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socioeconomic status (SES)

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sometimes call social class; reflects income, occupation, education, and neighborhood

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culture

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system of shared beliefs, conventions, norms, behaviors, and expectations that persist over time and prescribe social rules of conduct

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ethnic group

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people born in the same region, often share a language, culture, and religion

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social construction

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a concept made by society; affect how people think, behave, what they value, ignore, and punish (ethnicity & race)

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difference-equals-deficit error

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humans tend to believe that their nation and culture are better than others, the assumption that people unlike us (different) are inferior (deficit)

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race

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used to categorize people on the basis of physical differences and appearances

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multidisciplinary

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both nature and nurture impact development, studying different areas of research gives more details about human development

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epigenic

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impact of the environment on gene expression, environmental forces affect expression of genetic inheritance

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plasticity

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humans can change, yet maintain their identity

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dynamic systems

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development is always changing throughout the lifespan, influenced by genetics, environment, and social status

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1. Interaction between nature and nurture - how you react to environment based on genetics and personality

2. Sensitive periods in life - critical learning or developmental periods

3. Differential sensitivity - people are more vulnerable to particular experiences than others

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Three Factors That Affect Problems Later in Life

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differential sensitivity

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some people are more vulnerable to particular experiences than others

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developmental theory

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ideas and beliefs about different aspects of human development, gained through observation, try to understand how and why people change over time

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1. Psychoanalytic

2. Behaviorism

3. Social Learning Theory

4. Cognitive Theory

5. Humanism

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5 Developmental Theories

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Psychoanalytic

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1. inner drives & motives influence all behaviors and thinking, often unconcious, stem from childhood experiences, created by Sigmund Freud who suggested 5 stages through adolescense, first person to pay attention to child development

2. Erick Erickson expanded on Freud’s thought and came up with 8 stages through adulthood, first person to say that childhood continued into adulthood; influence comes from both family and culture and genetics and biology

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Behaviorism

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focuses on observable behavior, describes ways behavior is learned

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conditioning

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learning happens when responses are linked to specific stimuli

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classical conditioning

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(Pavlov) learning by association, linking neutral stimuli with a natural response

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1. Classical

2. Operant

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Two Types of Conditioning

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operant conditioning

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(B.F. Skinner) consequences of a behavior will increase or decrease frequency of behavior in the future, reinforcement (positive or negative)

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Social Learning Theory

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extension of behaviorism, other people influence every person’s behavior, humans learn from observing others; Albert Bandura was the first to describe the theory, emphasizes the influence of others, important to look at surrounding factors of observed actions

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modeling

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learning through watching and imitating others

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Cognitive Theory

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cognitive thought processes, thoughts and expectations impact actions, attitudes, beliefs, and assumptionsfocuses on changes in how people think over timemost famous theorist was Piaget, identified 4 stages of cognitive development, first to say learning happen throughout life, cognitive equilibrium

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assimilation

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experiences fit into or assimilate with old ideas

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accomodation

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old ideas are reconstructed to include or accommodate new experiences

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Humanism

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potential of all human beings, want to be good, belief that all people have the same basic needs; Maslow

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1. Psychological

2. Safety

3. Love and Belonging

4. Esteem

5. Self-Actualization - feeling that you have truly filled your own potential

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Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

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1. Cross-sectional

2. Longitudinal

3. Cross-sequential

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Basic research designs:

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cross-sectional research

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groups compared with others, done by age

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longitudinal research

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same people over long period of time

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Cross-sequential research

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groups compared with others by age with the same people over long period of time

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independent variable

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stands alone and does not change; imposed treatment, intervention, or condition

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dependent variable

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measure change from the treatment

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correlation

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exists between two variables if one is more likely to occur when the other does; is not causation

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experimental group

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group that received treatment

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comparison group

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group that does not receive treatment

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1. Surveys - info collected from large pools of people

2. Observations

3. Case study

4. Pre-post test

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Ways to Collect Information

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positive correlation

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both variables tend to increase or decrease together

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negative correlation

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one variable increases while the other decreases

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zero correlation

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no connection or relationship at all

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ethics

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Participants must be: voluntary, confidential, and unharmed

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informed consent

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make sure participants understand research procedures, any risks

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DNA

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instructions for cell replication

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chromosomes

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strands of DNA carrying genetic information

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genes

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instructions to produce specific traits, located on a particular chromosome

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allele

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variations of genes (brown/blue eyes, brown/blonde hair)

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46, 23, sex

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_____ chromosomes in the body, arranged in ______ pairs; every cell except ______ chromosomes has these pair

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autosomes

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first pairs 1-22

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gametes

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reproductive cells with half chromosomes (23), ova/ovum (X) and sperm (X or Y)

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karotype

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ordered picture of chromosome pairs

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sex chromosomes

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23rd pair, female = XX, male = XY

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genotype

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genetic code, unique for every person

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phenotype

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observable traits and characteristics (hair/eye color, height, personality/temperament)

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genome

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entire package of instructions that make up a living human

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zygote

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fertilized egg, single cell, distinct from any other human created

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monozygotic

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fertilized egg split in two for identical twins

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dizygotic

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two separate eggs fertilized by two separate sperm, fraternal twins

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dominant genes

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only one dominant allele needed to display trait with no impact from recessive

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recessive genes

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trait only displayed when two recessive alleles are present, effect of recessive genes can sometimes be noticed

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additive genes

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some genes add up to form a specific trait or phenotype (Ex: many genes influence height, not just one)

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carrier

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person’s genotype has a gene not expressed in the phenotype, half of gametes will get unexpressed gene, offspring may be carrier or express the gene in the phenotype

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1. Germinal - 10 days after conception

2. Embryonic - week 3-8

3. Fetal - 3 months-end

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Three Stages of Prenatal Development

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germinal period

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(about 10 days after conception) rapid cell division, from fertilization to when the egg implants in the uterine lining

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embryonic period

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(weeks 3-8) neural tube develops, forms brain and spinal cord; begins to take shape; eyes, ears, nose, mouth begin to form; heart cells begins to pulsate; legs, arms, hands, and toes form (start webbed and separate)

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fetal period

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(3 months-end) sex determined, released of hormones; heartbeat detectable, all body parts and systems complete, brain develops a great deal, cortex not fully mature at birth; brain able to regulate basic body functions (breathing); full term (38-40 weeks)

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age of viability

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infant could survive outside the womb with intense medical care after 22 weeks

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stem cells

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first cells that split apart, able to produce any type of cell in the body

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placenta

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organ that surrounds, protects, and provides nutrients to the baby

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implantation

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outer cells imbed themselves in the uterine lining (50% of embryos don’t impact and die)

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umbilical cord

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connects embryo to placenta

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amniotic sac

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protective membrane around amniotic fluid

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amniotic fluid

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fluid filling amniotic sac, helps keeps temperature constant and provides cushion

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1. Hormones trigger uterine muscles

2. Labor

a. dilation of cervix (0-10 cm)

b. delivery

c. after birth (delivery of placenta)

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Stage of Childbirth

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vaginal delivery

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infant delivered through birth canal, muscle contractions and pushing from mother

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induced labor

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labor started medically, drug to being and strengthen or speed up labor process

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epidural

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injection of drug into spine to alleviate labor pain

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cesarian section

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surgical birth, rates and reasons for c-sections vary greatly, less trauma for the newborn, but slower recovery for the mother, later c-sections may be necessary

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postpartum depression

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sense of inadequacy and sadness where caring for the baby feels very burdensome

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APGAR scale

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asses well being of newborn immediately after birth, check after first minute and after 5 min, score of 7 or higher at 5 min is good

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A - appearance (color: blue, purple, pink)

P - pulse

G - grimace, reflexibility

A - activity, muscle tone

R - respiration

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APGAR Scale

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reflex

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involuntary response to a particular stimulus, shows evidence of neurological function

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kangaroo contact

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infant lays on parent’s chest with skin-to-skin contact, hear heartbeat and feel body heat

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1. better sleep

2. weight gain

3. more alert

4. assist with bonding

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Benefits of Kangaroo Contact

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preterm/premature

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birth at 35 weeks or earlier, usually associated with low birthweight,earlier birth = more complications (underdeveloped lungs)

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low birth weight

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under 5.5 lbs, possible cause: maternal illness, teratogens; may cry more and be at risk for language and developmental delays

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200, syndrome

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About 1 in every _____ births, a child is born with an incorrect number of chromosomes, results in a ______

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trisomy 21

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down syndrome, most common genetic defect involving an incorrect number of chromosomes

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1. combination of impairments of many genes2. single recessive genes (ex: cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia)

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Genetic disorders may result from:

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terotogens

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anything that increases the risk of prenatal abnormalities; environmental influence that can cause prenatal harm that may result in birth defects, complications, long term physical, cognitive, social, or motional impairment (Ex: illness, virus, drugs, smoking, alcohol, medications, behavioral factors - stress, environmental pollutants)

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behavioral terotogens

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cause no physical defects but affect the brain; may cause a child to become hyper-active, antisocial, or learning-disabled

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threshold effect

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some teratogens are virtually harmless until exposure reaches a certain level

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weight at birth 7.5 lbs, length of 20 inches

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Average weight & length of newborn at birth

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cortex

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brain’s six outer layers, where most thinking, feeling and sensing occurs

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frontal cortex

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last to mature; planning, self-control, and self-regulation; immature at birth

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cortex

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the crinkled outer layer of the brain is the cortex

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auditory cortex

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hearing well developed at birth

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visual cortex

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vision least mature sense at birth

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neurons

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nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord

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axon

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what transmits the impulses on what we feel

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synapse

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where the neurons meet

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neurotransmitters

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helps neurons jump from one axon to the the next

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dendrites

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receives the electrons form the other neuron

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pruning

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unused brain connections die in order to make room in the brain for more important things; experience is vital for the brain to make connections; some is needed to allow space between neutrons, which leads to more synapses and complex thinking

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transient exuberance

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rapid, temporary growth of dendrites in the brain; occurs in the first two years

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1. Stimulation

2. Movement

3. Held/physical touch

4. Thing to look at, sensory experiences

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4 Needs of Infants

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self-righting

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an inborn drive to remedy neglect (Ex: infants with no toys will develop their brains by using whatever is available)

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sensation

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response to a stimulus (eyes, ears, skin, tongue, nose)

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perception

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how the brain processes and interprets a sensation

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sense of hearing

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develops during the last trimester in the womb, most advanced newborn sense, speech perception around 4 months, identifies patterns of language

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vision

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least mature sense at birth, focus between 4 and 30 inches away; experience and maturation of visual cortex; don’t see well until into first year, improve shape recognition, visual scanning and details; favorite thing to look at is human face, binocular vision at 3 month - ability for both eyes to focus on the same object

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gross (large) motor skills

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large body movement such as walking and jumping

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1. cephalocaudal (head-down)

2. proximodistal (center-out)

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Muscle Development Occurs

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1. muscle strength

2. brain maturation

3. practice

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Three interacting elements of motor skills

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fine (small) motor skills

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body movements of small muscles, hands and fingers (drawing and grasping), lips and mouth (sucking, licking), toes, shaped by culture and opportunity

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1. Social Interaction

2. Comfort

3. Learning

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Sensation and Motor Skills, Three Goals of Infants:

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Sensorimotor Stage (0-2) - infants learn through their senses; six substages:

1-2: infants response to own body

3-4: infants response to objects and others

5-6: creativity with action and ideas

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Piaget's First Stage

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object permanence

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realization that people and things still exist when can’t be seen, touched, or heard

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information processing theory

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step by step description of how cognition works; brain is active organ; infants can remember events, objects, and patterns

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1. Child directed speech - high pitched, simplified, and repetitive

2. Babbling - repetition of certain syllables between 6-9 months

3. Naming explosion - sudden increase in vocab, nouns, starts at 18 months

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Language Development

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1. Newborn - reflexive communication: cries, movements, facial expressions

2. 2 months - a range of meaningful noises: cooing, fussing crying, and laughing

3. 3-6 months - new sounds: squeals, growls, croons, trills, vowel sounds

4. 10-12 months - comprehension of simple words: speech like intonations, specific vocalizations that have meaning to those that know the baby

5. 13-18 months - slow growth of vocabulary, up to 50 words

6. 18 months - naming explosion: three or more words learned per day, much variation (some toddlers don’t speak yet)

7. 21 months - first two-word sentence

8. 24 months - multiword sentences, half of sentences are two or more words long

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The Development of Spoken Language in the First Two Years

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first words

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around first year, understand more words than can say, vocab increase slowly (1-2 new words a week)

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naming explosion

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50-100 words/week

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holophrase

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one word to express thought or wants (Ex: go, no, Mom, Dad)

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grammar

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pick up on it around age 2, able to speak fluently

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1. Learning Theory (Behaviorism) - language is taught, learned through association and reinforcement

2. Culture (Sociocultural) - language is essential for communication and social interaction, social content of speech is universal, social impulse drives learning

3. Innate (Chomsky) - universal language learning, similarities across culture and infants, language acquisition device - cognitive structure sensitive to learning rules of language, language learning happens and doesn't need reinforcement or cultural rules

4. Hybrid - combination of all useful in understanding

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Language Development Perspectives

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1. Newborns:contentment main emotioncry when hurt, hungry, tired

2. Young Infants:smile, laughter, curiosityemergence of angersadness

3. Older Infants:fearself awareness

4. Toddler:emotions appear more consistentlymore focused, more intense emotionemergence of temper tantrumsnew emotions: pride, guilt, embarrassment, shame

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Early Emotion Development

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stranger wariness

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fear of unfamiliar people

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separation anxiety

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upset when familiar person leaves, fades by age 3

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self awareness

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realizing that one is separate from others, appears around 18 months

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release high levels of cortisol, cortisol alters the brain in infants and impacts brain development, leads to long-term emotional and behavioral issuesalter physical structure of the brain

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Abuse and Neglect

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temperament

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inborn traits that influence reactions to something emotionally and physicallydifferent for each personimpacted by nature but traits are influenced by environmentdimensions: effortful control, mood, activity level

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1. Easy - (40%) laid back, easy to control

2. Difficult - (10%) strong emotions, have a harder time controlling emotion

3. Slow to warm up - (15%) shy, don’t like change, routine

4. Hard to classify - (35%)

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Temperament Types

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temperament

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fairly stable over time with consistent care giving, fearful infants were most likely to change, exuberant infants were the least likely to change, maturation and caregiving has effect

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sychrony

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fast, coordinated responses between caregiver and infant; helps infants learn about each others emotions and develop social interaction skills; usually begins with parents imitating infants; infants needs this for brain development

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attachment

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a lasting emotional bond with another, begins in early infancy. impacts close relationships throughout life; built on by the response of the caregiver: style (quite & calm, nervous) and consistency and synchrony, has a huge impact on early brain development

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1. Met needs

2. Safety

3. Trust

4. Being loved

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Attachment based on infant feeling of:

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1. secure - infants feels comfort and confidence from caregiver’s presence; leads to better outcomes through adulthood (better academic success and more successful relationships)

2. insecure-avoidant - infants avoids connection with caregiver; infant doesn’t seem to care about caregiver’s presence, departure, or return

3. insecure - resistant/ambivalent - infant anxious and uncertain, becomes very upset at separation from caregiver, resists and seeks contact on reunion

4. disorganized - infant inconsistent reactions to the caregiver’s separation and return

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Types of Attachment

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strange situation test

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study of attachmentchild reaction to new surroundings, strangers, and parent leaving and returningObserved behaviors:exploration of toysreaction to the caregiver’s departurereaction to the caregiver’s return

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insecure attachment

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problems later in life, behavioral problems, less confidence in success as a result of _____

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secure attachment

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promoted only by a responsive caregiver

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1. The parent is usually sensitive and responsive to the infant’s needs

2. The infant-parent relationship is high in synchrony

3. The infant’s temperament is “easy”

4. The parents are not stressed about income, other children, or their marriage

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Predictors of Secure Attachment

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1. The parent mistreats the child

2. The mother is mentally ill

3. Parents are highly stressed about income, other children, or their marriage

4. Parents are intrusive or controlling

5. Parents are alcoholics

6. Child’s temperament is “difficult”

7.Child’s temperament is “slow to warm up”

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Predictors of Insecure Attachment

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social referencing

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looking to other to determine how to react to something new, reacted based on another’s expression and reaction

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Infant: trust vs. mistrust - infants learn basic trust if they feel secure and their basic needs are met

Toddlers: autonomy vs shame & doubt - succeed or fail in gaining a sense of independence to explore

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Erickson's Stages

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quality has a huge impact on effectshigh quality often associate with cognitive, academic, social, and emotional benefitsbenefits can be long lasting through childhood and teen years, some even into adulthoodquality of parenting and quality of child care impact effects

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Quality Child Care

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1. Adequate attention to each infant. 2. Encouragement of language and sensorimotor development.

3. Attention to health and safety.

4. Professional caregivers.

5. Warm and responsive caregivers.

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5 Characteristics of a High Quality Daycare