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46 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is Anthropology?
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The study of humankind in a cross-cultural context
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Four types of Anthropology
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Biological Anthropology- The study of humans as organisms. An evolutionary framework; sometimes-called physical anthropology. Cultural Anthropology- The study of human societies, especially in a cross-cultural context. Linguistic Anthropology- The study of language, its origins, and use; also called anthropological linguistics Archaeology Anthropology- the study of the material culture of past peoples.
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DNA...page 39 textbook
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DNA Function 1: Replication
Helix unzips with help of special enzymes New nucleotides move into each side of unzipped ladder resulting in two identical molecules of DNA Each consisting of one old and new side of DNA Mistakes extremely rare due to proofreading and repair mechanisms After DNA replication these is twice as much DNA so that the cell can divide into two and resulting cell will contain normal amount of cells can DNA tell us? Reconstruct the human lineage in time and space Cells: Prokaryotic Cells: Eukaryotic Cells: The genetic material is within the nucleus Nucleus: DNA- Carries genetic information RNA: Functions during protein synthesis Mitochondria: Contains own DNA Ribosome: Site of protein synthesis In humans: 1. We have Somatic Cells: Most cells in body 2. We have Gametes(Sex Cells): Reproductive cells(egg and sperm) In each nucleus there is DNA: Deoxyribonucleic Acid Shape of a double Helix How does DNA hold information? Double Helix 4 bases: Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C |
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Mutations
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An alteration in the DNA that may or may not alter the function of a cell. If it occurs in a gamete, it may be passed from one generation to the next
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Insertions(Mutation) and Deletions(mutation)
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Deletion- A change in the base sequence of a gene that results from the loss of one more base pairs in the DNA
Insertions-A change in the base sequence of a gene that results from the addition of one or more base pairs in DNA |
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Chromosomes Page 45 textbook
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Discrete structures composed of condensed DNA and supporting proteins
DNA is organized into 2 sets of 23 chromosomes(one from each parent) Homologous pairs: two chromosomes carrying gene that produce the same traits: each is inherited from a different parent Locus: Location of a gene on a chromosome Have a distintive size and shape Are made up of DNA and protein. Genes are located at the chromosomes, and defined by nucleotide base air sequences. Locus is the location of gene on a chromosomes... Identified by a number on where it was found |
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Four different Chromosomal Mutations Page 49 Text book
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Chromosomal Mutations:
No disjunction: failure of homologous chromosomes or chromatids to separate properly during meiosis Chromosomes that gametes get may be: Not enough(deletion) too many(duplication) Wrong combination(inversion) (translocation) Autosomal no disjunction → miscarriage(except trisomy 21: Down Syndrome) Trisomy- Extra chromosome Monosomy- Absent chromosome EXAMPLE Turner Syndrome There are four basic types of point mutations that can occur: Substitution: This kind of mutation switches with another base to create an irregular sequence. ex:) NORMAL - ABCDEFG SUBSTITUTION - BACDEFG Insertion: This kind of mutation involves the insertion of an extra base to the sequence. ex:) NORMAL - ABCDEFG INSERTION - ABHCDEFG Deletion: This kind of mutation deletes or loses one of the bases in the sequence. ex:) NORMAL - ABCDEFG DELETION - ACDEFG Frameshifts: This kind of mutation is where a sequence has an insertion or deletion, altering it. Since the sequence is divided into three bases |
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Mitosis vs meiosis
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See Homework Sheet Chart
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Genes
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Fundamental Unit in heredity
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Alleles
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An allele is one of two or more versions of a gene. An individual inherits two alleles for each gene, one from each parent. If the two alleles are the same, the individual is homozygous for that gene. If the alleles are different, the individual is heterozygous. Though the term "allele" was originally used to describe variation among genes, it now also refers to variation among non-coding DNA sequences.
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genotype
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The genetic makeup of an individual. Entire genetic complement.
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Phenotype page 60 and on
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An observable or measurable feature of an organism.
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Homozygous
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Having the same allele at the loci for a gene on both members of a pair of homologous chromosomes
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Heterozygous
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Having two different alleles at the loci for a gene
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Dominant allele and recessive allele
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Must be present in only one chromosomal locus
Must be present on both |
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16. Genetic variation and meiosis
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Meiosis produces genetic recombination, because each daughter cell is given half of the genetic material as the original dividing cell. This is the study of inheritance, the passing of traits from on generation to the next. Genes are the units of hereditary, found at specific loci on each chromosome. Genes are made up of DNA, and DNA replication in meiosis passes on the genes to offspring.
The reason each offspring, and more generally, each individual has their own unique genetic code is due to genetic variation. First, there is independent assortment. This occurs when homologous chromosome pairs line up during Metaphase I of Meiosis. There is a fifty-fifty chance of each daughter cell getting one of two chromosomes from the pair. Therefore, there are two options for each chromosome, a total of 2n options. Humans have a total of 23 chromosomes, creating a total of 8 million different gametes arising from a single germ line cell. Second, the meeting of a sperm and an egg is a somewhat haphazard process, pro |
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Mendel's Laws PAGE 64!!! and WEBSITE GLOSSARY!!!
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Gregor Mendel(1822-1884)
Augustinian Monk Conducted systematic experiments on garden peas Mendel studied inheritance in pea plants Focused on traits that have 2 discrete forms Cultivated true breeding lines and then studied results of those crosses Terminology: Genotype(your genes) Phenotype(the traits you see) Mendel’s Conclusion(1) “units” of heredity= Genes 2 forms= ALLELES To explain the pattern of results, Mendel induced four postulates 1. Mendel’s Principle of particulate inheritance: Characteristics of organisms are determined jointly by pairs of particles(genes) inherited from each parent. Homozygous- Having two of the same alleles(TT or tt) Heterozygous-Having two different alleles(Tt or tT) Mendel’s conclusion(2) 2. Mendel’s Principal of Dominance: One form (allele) will dominate the other (and be expressed phenotypically) when both are present Dominant- the allele expressed as the phenotype in heterozygous(T) Recessive- the allele only expressed as a phenotype in homozygote |
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Polygenic Traits PAGE 74
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Polygenic traits are controlled by two or more than two genes (usually by many different genes) at different loci on different chromosomes. These genes are described as polygenes. Examples of human polygenic inheritance are height, skin colour and weight. Polygenes allow a wide range of physical traits. For instance, height is regulated by several genes so that there will be a wide range of heights in a population.
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Sex Linkage
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Sex linkage is the phenotypic expression of an allele that is related to the chromosomal sex of the individual. This mode of inheritance is in contrast to the inheritance of traits on autosomal chromosomes, where both sexes have the same probability of expressing the trait. Since, in humans, there are many more genes on the X than there are on the Y, there are many more X-linked traits than there are Y-linked traits.
In mammals, the female is the homozygous sex, having two X chromosomes (XX), while the male is heterozygous, having one X and one Y chromosome (XY). Genes that are present on the X or Y chromosome are called sex linked genes Sex-linked traits are a special case. They are controlled by genes on the sex chromosomes, X and Y. The female has two X chromosomes and the male has one X and one Y. Both males and females are equally likely to have a recessive allele on one X chromosome. However, if a female has a recessive allele, there's a good chance that the OTHER X chromosome will have a dominant all |
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Genetic Drift
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changes in gene frequencies due to chance events
Genetic drift is the fluctuation of allele frequencies in a population due to chance. Chance plays a role in several ways. Copies of alleles can be lost because they never make it into gametes. Another possibility is, if the allele copy makes into a sperm, that sperm isn't the one that fertilizes an egg. Maybe the organism that carries copies of the allele in its gametes fails to find a mate, or is killed before reproducing. These kinds of events can influence the frequency of that alelle in a population, and occurs regardless of any selection for or against that allele. Obviously, the smaller the population, the larger the effect drift has on the allele frequency. For example, consider a population of four organisms. Each has two copies of a particular gene (one on each chromosome). Now, consider a mutation that creates a new allele for that gene, and that it appears on one chromosome of one individual. That allele will have a frequency of 1/8 in that popula |
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Gene flow
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Movement of genes between populations
Migration of individuals – can lead to change quickly- depends on migration rate |
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Unit of evolution
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Population is the unit of evolution. A population is defined as a group of organisms of a particular species that inhabits a particular area. Natural selection acts on traits within that population that are beneficial in the particular area. Another population of the same species may be under different selective pressures (as it is found in a different location), and natural selection may therefore act on different traits within that second population. The two populations, thus, may evolve differently. Therefore, the unit of evolution is the population, not species.
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unit of selection
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Gene
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bottleneck effect
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a large population drastically reduced in size by some disaster will lose genetic diversity, resulting uniformity can leave populations vulnerable
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Natural selection
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differential survival and reproduction of some individuals over others, so that their genes become more common in the next generation
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Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection is based upon these observations
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1. Natural populations have the potential for explosive growth -
2. Natural populations nonetheless tend to remain stable = many individuals do not survive and/or reproduce 3. Variation exists among individuals, and at least some of that variation is heritable = has a genetic basis 4. Individuals with variations that make them more suited (better adapted) to a particular environment are those that survive and reproduce 5. These favorable variations thus become more common in future generations |
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Modern synthesis of EVo theory
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In other words, modern synthesis is a theory about how evolution works at the level of genes, phenotypes, and populations whereas Darwinism was concerned mainly with organisms, speciation and individuals.
The modern evolutionary synthesis (also referred to as the new synthesis, the modern synthesis, the evolutionary synthesis and the neo-darwinian synthesis) is a union of ideas from several biological specialties which comprise a widely accepted account of evolution. This synthesis has been accepted by nearly all working biologists. [1] The synthesis was produced over about a decade (1936-1947), and the development of population genetics (1918-1932) was the stimulus. This showed that Mendelian genetics was consistent with natural selection and gradual evolution. The synthesis is still, to a large extent, the current paradigm in evolutionary biology. [2] |
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why mutations important
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The main driving force of evolution is natural selection, which occurs when the environment picks for the organism which variations are useful by killing off those who haven't got them.
That is how we evolve, in a nutshell. Mutations are the source of those variations. No variations, no evolution. In order for natural selection to operate effectively, there have to be variations which can be selected, either for or against, depending upon their survival value. Mutation is a major source of variation. If every organism in a species is the same, then there is nothing to select. |
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how is evolution a two step process
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Homologous
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Shared traits with shared ancestors
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Analogous
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Shared traits with no common ancestors
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Founder effect
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The founder effect is a dramatic decrease in genetic diversity caused through the formation of a small colony of individuals which remains isolated. The founder effect contributes to genetic drift, which causes certain genetic traits to vanish or become more abundant. Several human populations provide interesting sources of study for geneticists interested in the founder effect, as do numerous animal populations.
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Biological concept
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The biological species concept (BSC) means that organisms are considered to belong to the same species if they can potentially reproduce with each other and have offspring that are healthy and fertile. Otherwise, they are considered to belong to different species.
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Recognition concept
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Unique traits
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Reproductive isolation and mechanisms
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The mechanisms of reproductive isolation or hybridization barriers are the collection of mechanisms, behaviors and physiological processes that prevent the members of two different species that cross or mate from producing offspring, or which ensure that any offspring that may be produced is not fertile. These barriers maintain the integrity of a species over time, reducing or directly impeding gene flow between individuals of different species, allowing the conservation of each species characteristics.
Behavioral, ecological and anatomical |
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Sexual selection and natural selection
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Natural selection is the process that occurs when a genetic trait evolves because it effects a population's ability to survive and reproduce. That trait will tend to become more common if it is favourable to a population's ability to survive and reproduce, and the trait will become less common if it is unfavourable to a population's ability to survive and reproduce.
Sexual selection refers to a process that occurs when a genetic trait evolves because it effects an organism's ability to attract a mating partner and mate. |
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two kinds of sexual selection
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Adaption
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increased reproductive succeses Phenotypic traits
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Adaptive radiation
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Diversification of one founding species into multiples niches
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Gradualism
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Gradual evolution SLOW
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Punctuated
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Long periods of Stasis but bursts of change
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Allopatric
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Occurs via geographic isolation which leads to speciation
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Parapatric
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two population continues distribution and phenotypes...overlapping with partial reproductive
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Race
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Both cultural and biological characteristics
genetic variation? |
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heterozygote advantage
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selective advantage over homozygous...EXAMPLE sickle cell disease: mechanism to stabilize polymorphism
heterozygote advantage (heterozygous advantage) describes the case in which the heterozygote genotype has a higher relative fitness than either the homozygote dominant or homozygote recessive genotype. This selection favoring the heterozygote is one of the mechanisms that maintain polymorphism and help to explain some kinds of genetic variability. |
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gene frequency
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The frequency of occurrence of an allele in relation to that of other alleles of the same gene in a population.
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