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History Russia

History Russia

by 123Ma123, Apr. 2016

Subjects: History

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	Why was Russia hard to govern?	-There were more than 20 different ethnic groups. -Russia's size (100 times bigger than Britain) had as many miles of railway as Britain. -The population was 125 million people. 6 out of ten people saw Russian as a foreign language.
	Why did many people resent being part of the Russian empire?	The rulers of Russia carries out a policy of Russification were non-Russians had to wear Russian clothes speak Russian and follow Russian customs.
	How did the tsar rule?	-Russia was an autocracy, with all the power in the hands of the tsar, the tsar believed he had the divine right to rule (chosen by god). This meant that he could do whatever he wanted without having to consult his people (no parliament). - The tsar did have a council of ministers that ran various government departments but they were not allowed to make important decisions. -There were thousands of civil servants but they were poorly paid with encouraged bribery and corruption.
	What laws prevented Russian freedom?	-unions banned -strikes forbidden -newspapers and books censored -Okhrana used spies and agents to to root out anyone who was against the tsar, and his government.
	How many people were part of the Russian Orthodox church, and what was is part in the empire?	-70 percent -The TOC supported the tsar and his way of ruling, it taught the tsar was head of the country an the church, in other words he was god chosen representative on earth.
	Why was the Russian orthodox church unpopular?	Large minorities belonged to other churches and religions and resented the power and privileges of the Orthodox church. 9% were Roman Catholic 11% were Muslim The church was very rich compared to the majority of Russian people.
	What reasons to do with Nicholas's nurture made him rule the way he did?	-Alexander had a strong influence on shaping the tsars belief on autocratic rule. -His father failed to provide him with much training in the affairs of the state and didn't teach him any economics of politics. -in 1881 when the tsar was 13 he witnessed the death of his grandfather by a revolutionary bomber
	Why did the tsars personality make him a bad leader?	He was a family man and more interested in family life than ruling the country itself. -He was ignorant of the nature and extent of his opposition -He and his wife believed they were chosen by god and didn't think anyone had the right to challenge them.
	How did his family effect his ruling?	-The Tsar's son Alexei suffered from haemophilia,an incurable blood disease and as such was likely to die young. -The tsars wife was a German born princess, granddaughter of queen Victoria, she was very shy and hated public appearances.
	What were the peasants like?	85% of the population were peasants that's 4 out of 5 people. From 1860 to 1897 the peasant population doubled creating more competition and smaller plots. They were the biggest and poorest group and only had a live expectancy of 40. They lived on a diet of rye bread, cabbage soup and porridge. They were resentful of the aristocracy for their extravagant lifestyle, and having to work on their land to own money, since the emancipation of the serfs in 1861.
	What was agriculture like in Russia?	Peasants used strip farming which encouraged subsistence farming were only what was needed was farmed using primitive hand tools. This resulted in low food production and frequent famines (extreme scarcity of foods). Extensive tundra forest and desert meant only 5% of land was used for farming.
	What was Russia's industry like?	Industrialization did not happen until the end of the 19th century, considering Russia's size and resources its manufacturing output was still very low due to its undeveloped roads and railways and lack of an effective banking system.
	How did Russia's industry change after the outbreak of WW1?	a rapid growth due to an increase in the output of coal in Ukraine and an increase in the output of oil in Caucasus, also deliberate government policy.
	Who was Sergei Witte?	the minister of finance from 1893 to 1903, he set himself the task of modernizing Russia's economy. He did this by inviting foreign experts and workers to advise on industrial planning and techniques. His reforms did stimulate industrial growth, but this also lead to many social problems especially in living and working conditions.
	What was the aristocracy like?	The aristocracy made up 1% of the population but owned 1/4 of the land, many were extremely rich having one home in the cities and another home in the countryside with many servants.
	What was Russia's middle class like?	Russia had a middle class whose numbers were increasing due to the development of industry, some were rather wealthy due to government loans and contracts. They were made up of bankers, merchants and factory owners.
	What were the town workers like?	This group was rapidly increasing as masses of peasants flocked to towns and cities in hope of a better life in industry. The conditions were terrible living in overcrowded slums, working, long hours, and getting poorly paid. They were forbidden to form trade unions and any protests were brutally crushed by the police or army. They ate cheap black bread, cabbage soup and wheat porridge.
	What was Bloody Sunday?	A peaceful and non aggressive march by 200,000 led by a young priest Father Gapon to petition for better working conditions. However the tsar was not in the winter palace and the soldiers panicked and fired on the crowd killing hundred and wounding thousands. "tsar Nicholas has lost the absolutely the affection of the Russian people'
	What was the 1905 revolution?	Bloody Sunday together with the defeat of Russia in the war with Japan (1904-05) sparked revolution in Russia. There were strikes and mutiny in the navy . In order to avoid further chaos the tsar issued the October Manifesto promising an end to censorship, freedom of speech, and a national parliament (duma). This revolution was a warning to the Tsar of the need for change and reform, however Nicholas II ignored this warning.
	Who was Peter Stolypin?	Peter Stolypin was the prime minister appointed by the Tsar following the 1905 Revolution, although making some good reforms in agriculture in education whenever anyone openly opposed the tsar they were dealt with severely. There were more than 3000 deaths during his time as prime minister and soon the gallows became known as Stolypin necktie.
	Did the tsar follow through with his manifesto?	In the years following 1905 Nicholas made sure the duma had little power. After the making of the first duma in 1906, he declared that he could dissolve it at any point and change the way by it was elected whenever he liked. There were four different dumas in the years 1906-14, Nicholas had gone against the promises made in the October Manifesto refusing to share power and continuing to rule like an autocrat, this in turn stimulated more opposition.
	What was industrial unrest?	Russia's rapid industrial growth had created poor living and working conditions for industrial workers. This lead to a wave of strikes in the years before 1914. One of the most important strikes was at Lena goldfields were troops shot dead more than 200 strikers and injured several hundred. The events at Lena heralded a new wave of strikers in urban areas across Russia and there was a general strike in St Petersburg in July 1914.
	Who was Rasputin and what powers did her have?	After 1907 Nicholas and his wife came to rely on the guidance of a holy man called Gregory Rasputin. -This was because he had the ability to control the life threatening illness of the tsars son Alexei. Alexandra -They called him 'our friend and his position and power in the court grew to such a point were he eventually helped choose government ministers.
	Why was Rasputin disliked?	-Stories of his hedonistic lifestyle abounded, such as rumors of orgies and there were always women in his presence.Rasputin was just another piece of ammunition for those who did not like tsarism. These critics saw corruption and incompetence now being added to the list of things Russia faced.
	Which political parties opposed the tsar and when were they formed?	The Social Democratic Party- 1901 The Social Revolutionaries- 1901 The Constitutional Democratic Party- 1905 The Octoberists- 1905
	What were the Social Democratic Party?	They followed the teachings of Karl Marx.They believed that one day the workers would stage a revolution and remove the tsar, and soon after set up a communist state. In 1903 the party split into two factions, the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks. The Mensheviks beveled in mass party membership and slow change. The Bolsheviks believed in the small party elite organizing a revolution. The Mensheviks were also prepared to work with the more liberal parties and were not in favor of the use of violence the Bolsheviks on the other hand were more hard-line they couldn't wait for capitalism to come first and to gain the confidence of the people they were prepared for the use of violence.
	What were the SR's?	The SR's believed in a revolution of the peasants, were land would be shared among the peasants and form small peasant communities.There was a mixture of beliefs as some were prepared to use terror to achieve there goals and others wanted to use more constitutional methods. Terrorist activity by the SR's was responsible for the deaths of thousands of government officials in the years before 1917. Alexander Kerensky eventually lead the SR's
	Who were the Cadets?	As a middle class developed in Russia a demand grew for a more democratic style of government. The Cadets believed in the setting up of a elected parliament with a constitutional monarch, some were prepared to set up a republlic. The Cadets were led by Paul Milyukov.
	Who were the Octoberists?	The Octoberists believed the tsar would follow through with the promises he made in the October Manifesto of limited reform. The Octoberists main support came from the middle classes. They were led by Alexander Guchkov.
	What were the key military events of the war on the Eastern Front? #1	Early August 1914 A Russian Army advanced 160km into Austria. Another Russian army advanced into the German province of east Prussia.
	What were the key military events of the war on the Eastern Front? #2	26-29 of August 1914 A German army surrounded and trapped a Russian army in the swampland at Tannenburg. 70,00 soldiers were killed and 50,00 captured. The Russian commander General Samsonov was so ashamed he commit suicide.
	What were the key military events of the war on the Eastern Front? #3	5-9 September 1914 German army advance northwards by rail and meets Russian army at the Muarisian lakes, 100,000 Russians killed or wounded. The Russian steamroller had been destroyed.
	What were the key military events of the war on the Eastern Front? #4	May 1915 A joint austro-German offensive forced the Russians to retreat 480 km back into Russia. Only the extreme Russian winter prevented and saved Russia from defeat.
	What were the key military events of the war on the Eastern Front? #5	June 1916 Russian counter-attack led by General Brusilov, drove deep into Austrian territory, regaining much of the land lost in 1915. However the arrival of German reinforcements stopped the Russian advance, and Russia started to retreat. One million Russian deaths.
	Why did Russia suffer so many defeats? (Poor leadership of generals and officers)	-The Generals did not work as a team, they were lazy incompetent and overconfident. -In 1914 they moved their army too quickly into east Prussia too confident and were to ahead in support and supplies. -They used outdated tactics believing the cavalry would be decisive. They rode with sabers and lances which were no match for German machine guns. -They also had poor communication sending messages to each other wireless which were easily intercepted by the Germans and gave away their position. Outdated telegraph system - military commands got lost. GCTC
	Why did Russia suffer so many defeats? (Leader ship of the Tsar (September 1915 on wards))	The tsar was not capable and made no difference to the war effort,he was blamed for the war effort this got rid of the idea that Russia's defeat could be blamed only on the incompetence of the commanders and military, the peasants who had a image of a wise and caring tsar had this shattered by their experience at war.
	Why did Russia suffer so many defeats? (Supplies and equipment)	Soldiers had no boots or winter coats, sometimes two or three men shared the same rifle, usually they were short of bullets and always needed more medical supplies.
	Why did Russia suffer so many defeats? (Lack of infrastructure)	Not enough steelworks explosive factories shipyards and medical supplies. Poor roads and inadequate railway system - supplies couldn't reach the front line.
	What were the general effects of Russian defeats at war?	Enthusiasm waned, casualties frequent defeats and poor equipment lowered the morale of the soldiers. They soon lost respect for their officers , who seemed unfeeling and ineffective. Many soldiers died without weapons or ammunition, and some did not even have boots to wear in the bitterly cold weather. This discontent spread to the people of Russia, news of high casualties caused alarm in different parts of the Russian Empire.
	What were the economic effects of the war?	Inflation increased there were seven price rises between 1913 and 17), less food was produced because of shortage of labor and horses which made it harder for peasants to cultivate their land this in turn encouraged higher food prices.
	What were the industrial effects of the war?	Shortages of workers, lack of fuel and essential supplies. Russia's transport could not cope with the increased demands of war as well as providing industry with the necessary raw materials. Consumer goods such as boots and cloth became scarce and expensive. There was shortages of vital coal,iron and steel. Many factories closed, making their workers unemployed.
	What were the effects of the economic consequences of war?	They brought misery, because of shortages the prices were rising continually but wages were hardly going up at all. Workers were being asked to work longer hours. The closure of factories led to unemployment and even greater poverty. All these things were worsened by food and fuel shortages. Even when food and fuel was available supplies frequently failed to reach the people in the towns and cities, due the Russia's transport system, and incompetence of their government.
	What were the political effects of war?	At first the war seemed to improve the government of Russia as it encouraged the tsar to work with the dumas, but ultimately it seriously weakened the position of the tsar. The tsars decision to take over command of the war and move to the front was a serious political mistake.It meant he left the running of the country in the hand of his wife Alexandra.
	Why was Alexandra bad at running Russia?	She refused to take advice from the middle class members of the duma and would replace minister with others at Rasputin word, and replaced them with his incompetent friends, there were so many changes of ministers that nobody was organizing food,fuel and other supplies to the cities properly. The railway system fell into chaos and trainloads of food were left rotting.
	Why was Alexandra hated by the public during the war?	During the war and afterwards the Russian people grew to hate anything German changing the name of the of the capital city from the German St Petersburg to the Russian Petrograd. Alexandra was German and it was rumored she was a German trying to sabotage the Russian war effort.
	What was popular opinion in 1917 about the war?	As news from the war got worse and the situation in the cities got more desperate support for the tsar and his wife began to diminish among the middle and upper classes. They blamed the tsar for leaving the country under the control of a German woman influenced by a mad monk.
	What were the conditions in February 1917?	The winter weather was especially bad in December and January and this meant that food supplies to cities and towns were affected. Prices rose and rationing only led to further discontent.In Petrograd people began to demand food.
	Did people support Tsar in February 1917?	Support for the tsar continued to diminish and it seemed that there was no solution to the many problems facing Russia. The idea that the Grand Duke Micheal could mention the idea of direct opposition to tsar highlights the severity of the situation.' those who defend the idea that Russia cannot exist without the tsar are losing the ground under their feet'
	What did all the problems in February result in?	Strikes became an everyday occurrence in Petrograd in early 1917 and this resulted in huge numbers of people on the streets. The situation got worse when soldiers garrisoned mutinied began to take sides with the demonstrators. For Nicholas this was disastrous. A loyal army had saved him in 1905- now his final pillar of support started to crumble.
	Did Nicholas know of the problems facing Russia?	Nicholas's presence at the front meant that he did not always know exactly what was happening in Petrograd. In January 1917, General Krymov, a Russian commander on the Eastern Front, informed Rodzianko, the president of the duma that many soldiers had lost faith in the tsar and would support the duma if it took over. Krymov also told Rodzianko that the Tsarina Alexandra had to be removed from Russian politics. Rodzianko tried to act on this but he found that Nicholas would not accept advice from him or the duma, which had been recalled in 1915. Events rapidly spiraled out of control in February 1917.
	What were the events in Petrograd 14-25th of February 1917?	14th February- The president of the duma Rodziankio informed Nicholas that he could no longer rely on his closest supporters 18th February- Strike at the putilov engineering works began. The workers demanded high wages as a result of inflation. 23rd February- International Women Day organised by socialist groups. Large numbers of women joined about 100,000 strikers and demonstrators on the streets in Petrograd. Many women chanted simple slogans such as 'Down with hunger' and 'Bread for the workers!' 24th February- About 200,00 workers on strike 25th February- Strikes all over the city with about 300,00 demonstrators on the streets. No newspapers were printed and there was no public transport for the demonstrators.
	What were the events in Petrograd 26-28th of February 1917?	26 February - Nicholas instructed the army to restore order but some of the Petrograd garrison had deserted. Some shots were fired on the demonstrators. There were no printers to produce the tsars proclamations 17th February- Buildings, shops, and restaurants were looted. Most of the Petrograd garrison mutinied. Nicholas ordered the duma to dissolve. It id so, but twelve members refused and set up the 'Provisional Committee'. Alexander Kerensky a social revolutionary demanded that Nicholas abdicate. First meeting of the Petrograd soviet of soldiers sailors and workers deputies. The Provisional Committee and the Petrograd Soviet were now running the country. 28th February- The Soviet issued the newspaper Izvestiya and declared its intention to remove the old system of government.
	What were the events in Petrograd March 1917?	1 March- The Petrograd Soviet issued Soviet Order Number One which transferred all authority from army officers to elected representatives of the soldiers. 2 March- Nicholas decided to return to Petrograd and was met at Pskov where his leading generals told him that his presence in the capitol would be nod good. They advised him to abdicate. Nicholas abdicated and refused to nominate his son Alexei as his successor because of his hemophilia. Nicholas brother the Duke Micheal was then proposed as the tsar, but he declined. 3rd March- The Provisional Committee renamed itself the Provisional Government and became responsible for running the country.
	In more detail how did the Tsar abdicate?	the abdication took place in a railway carriage 320 kilometers from Petrograd.
	What were the long term political causes of the February revolution?	-Politicization of the working class -Nicholas II personality -Lack of reform -Rule or Rasputin
	What were the long term social causes of the February revolution?	-Growth of the cities -Lack of change in peasantry -Stolypin reforms not enough
	What were the long term military causes of the February revolution?	-Conscription of peasants -Russian desire for expansion
	What were the middle term political causes of the February revolution?	-Duma not given enough power -Success of zemtvos -The tsar taking personal control army -Rasputin control losing faith (Nobles +Octobers) of liberals + traditional support. -Incompetence of prime ministers
	What were the middle term social causes of the February revolution?	-Food and fuel shortages -Inflation -Conscription meant most soldiers were peasants
	What were the middle term military causes of the February revolution?	- Army requisitioning of food etc. -Poor organisation -Poor performance> Poor leadership> morale -Tsar taking personal control of army (Tsarism dependent on military success
	What were the short term political causes of the February revolution?	-Duma refusing to dissolve + attacking the Tsar -Revolutionary banners being handed out -Nicholas ignoring seriousness -Setting up soviet that recognizes the duma -The Duma setting up the PC -Tsar abdicating in favor of his brother
	What were the short term social causes of the February revolution?	-The workers on strike due to pay disputes -Workers in the streets due to international womens day -soviet being erected -Tsarists symbols being destroyed by workers
	What were the short term military causes of the February revolution?	-Army firing on protesters -Order no 1 -Mutiny at Kronstadt -Army high command addressing the tsar to abdicate -Soviet controlling army when PG take over.
	What did the provisional government promise in March 1917?	The end of tsarism was unplanned and took people by surprise. The Provisional Government was set up on 3 March 1917 and it promised to bring reforms to Russia. There would also be elections for a new Constituent assembly (parliament) as soon as possible.
	What is the provisional government consist of?	Government consisted of a cabinet of ministers . The prime minister was Prince Lvov, a wealthy aristocratic landowner, and other leading figures included: Milyukov - Foreign Minister and leader of the Cadets Guchkov - War Minister and leader of the Octobrists Kerensky - Minister of Justice and Social Revolutionary. The remaining ministers were chosen from the Octobrist and Cadet parties.
	What did the make up all the provisional government signal about the provisional government?	Thus the new government was composed of middle-class politicians. Who wanted to draw up a constitution and establish a democratic government initially it was supported by the Bolsheviks, who believed that the working class could become better organised under such a government then, in the future, the workers will be able to seize power from the middle classes.
	What would the problem is the provisional government faced?	The Provisional Government faced a number ofproblems as soon as it was formed: • it was not a truly elected body and did not represent the people of Russia • there were defeats in the war soldiers were deserting • peasants were looting the property of the landlords soldiers and workers were setting up Soviets in towns and cities • people wanted an end to food shortages • some of the national minorities, such as the Poles and Finns, were hoping that there might even be a chance of independence in the near future.
	What was perhaps the most serious issue facing the provisional government?	Perhaps the most serious issue facing the Provisional Government was the formation of the Petrrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers Deputies. By early March, the Soviet had about 3000 elected members and contained many revolutionaries, especially Socialist Revolutionaries and Mensheviks.
	What of the Petrograd Soviet actions and the relationship between the Petrograd Soviet and the provisional government had an affect on the running of Russia?	The Petrograd Soviet issued Soviet Order Number One (see Source B) and it was this which took away much of the authority of the new government. The existence of the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet meant that there were two bodies running Russia; this became known as the Dual Authority. Both bodies met in the same building, the Tauride Palace. Initially they worked together, but as the months wore on, a gulf between the two began to grow Soviet came under the influence of the Bolsheviks, who attacked the Provisional government for continuing the war.
	What did the provisional government decide to do despite so the Soviet order number one and how was this a massive mistake?	In spite of Soviet Order Number One, Provisional Government decided to continue the war. Russia could only do so if its allies loaned more money and Britain and France were prepared to do this. There were even some Bolsheviks Stalin and Kamenev - who felt that the war should not be stopped. However, the decision to continue the war was fatal for the Provisional Government because further defeats served only to create unpopularity. A major defeat in June 1917 resulted in more than 60,000 deaths and this led to yet
	What did the decision to continue the war result in? (Provisional government)	A major defeat in June 1917 resulted in more than 60,000 deaths and this led to yet more desertions. When soldiors returned home,they took part in seizing land from the nobility - thus adding to the chaos across Russia.To add to the misery of the Provisional Government, Germany sent exiled revolutionaries back to Russia in the hope that they would stir up rebellion. Among these was Lenin, the Bolshevik leader, who arrived in Petrograd in April 1917. Lenin began to call for the overthrow of the Provisional government.
	What did the decision to continue the war result in? (Provisional government)	A major defeat in June 1917 resulted in more than 60,000 deaths and this led to yet more desertions. When soldiors returned home,they took part in seizing land from thenobility - thus adding to the chaos across Russia
	What added to the misery of the provisional government?	To add to the misery of the Provisional Government, Germany sent exiled revolutionaries back to Russia in the hope that they would stir up rebellion. Among these was Lenin, the Bolshevik leader, who arrived in Petrograd in April 1917. Lenin began to call for the overthrow of theProvisional government.
	What were the provisional government reforms?	P – amnesty for political prisoners (And official pardon for people who have been convicted of political offences) S – freedom of speech S – secret police abolished T – recognition of trade unions H – introduction of an eight hour day for industrial workers E – promise of an elected parliament R – freedom of religion
	What did you each reform try to address?	Despite its many problems, the provisional government did make some reforms during early weeks of its ministry.Each reform tried to address problems which had cither not been solved after the 1905 Revolution, or had been created by the tsar and his ministers in an effort to keep tight control over the Russian people. The reforms were quite wide-ranging and it was hoped that the workers and the middle classes would be satisfied by them.
	What did the decision to continue the war cause in terms of the make up of the provisional government?	However, the decision to continue the war was fatal for the Provisional Government. In May, Guchkov and Milyukov were forced to resign, because they wanted to continue taking part in the war even if German troops were pushed off Russian soil. In the following month, the Russian army suffered heavy casualties in a new offensive against the Germans. Nevertheless, the first All Russian Congress of Soviets meeting in June 1917 gave a vote of confidence in the Provisional Government. (Only 105 out of 822 representatives in the Congress were Bolsheviks.)
	What was Lenin doing when war broke out? And what were his views on the war?	When war broke out in 1914, Lenin was in Austria. He was arrested, but allowed to travel to Zurich in neutral Switzerland. He was utterly opposed to the war, but found that there were many Bolsheviks who supported it. Moreover, there were many socialists in Europe who also supported the war and this seemed to show that Lenin was out of step with current thinking.
	What did Lenin want after the February revolution?	Lenin was out of step with current thinking. After the February Revolution, Lenin was desperate to return to Russia. He was keen that his supporters at home should put forward the message that the Bolsheviks wanted peace and an end to the chaos in Russia.
	Why did the Germans decide to help Lenin get to Russia?	The Germans decided to help Lenin return from exile in Switzerland, in the hope that he would overthrow the new government in Russia. The Germans thought that Russia pulled out of the war, then more troops could be moved to the Western Front to fight Britain and France.
	How did Lenin get to Russia? When did he arrive? And what was the price he paid for getting to Russia in the method he did?	Lenin was put in a sealed train and sent across Germany and Sweden. He arrived in Petrograd at the Finland Station on 3 April 1917. The price he paid for this method of transport was the accusation that he was a German spy, in the pay of the enemy. Lenin was unconcerned. He had returned and, moreover, the money from the Germans would help finance his revolution.
	What was the April thesis? How did the Bolsheviks progress after Lenins return?	The Bolsheviks did grow in popularity and, by June 1917, there were more than 40 newspapers spreading Lenin's views and ideas across Russia. The Bolsheviks even had their own 'Red Guard' - by July, there were about 10,000 armed workers in Petrograd itself.
	What did the April thesis state?	– The war with Germany had to end – Power had to pass from the middle classes to the working classes –All land had to be given to the peasants – The police, or me and bureaucracy should be a abolished -The capitalist system had to be overthrown by the workers – banks, factories and transport should be nationalised – The Bolsheviks should take control of the Soviet in order to achieve their aims. The slogan "All power to the Soviets" became the watchword.
	What were the long-term problems of the provisional government in July 1917?	Despite the vote of confidence, by July, the . Provisional Government was still experiencing problems. The war was not going well and the growing pnwer of the Soviets and strength of opposition were key concerns. The Austrian Front was. disintegrating and this caused many soldiers to flood back to Russia.
	What was the July days?	For three days there was chaos in Petrograd when the soldiors and some Bolsheviks tried to overthrow the Provisional Government.
	Why did the Bolsheviks pull this? (The July days)	Lenin felt that the Bolsheviks had grown sufficiently to challenge the Provisional Government, which had done little to put right the grievances of the people.
	How had The Bolsheviks advanced by July 1917?	In February 1917 the membership of the Bolshevik party was 24,000 in April this had risen 100,000. The Bolsheviks had their own"Red Guard' – Workers with rifles - and by early July had almost 10,000 in Petrograd, a number which was swelled by army deserters. The riots and disorder were only calmed when Kerensky, the Minister of War, was able to move loyal troops to quash the rebels.
	How did Kerensky respond to the July days?	About 400 people were killed and injured during the chaos and Kerensky claimed that the Bolsheviks who had been involved in the trouble with all in the pay of Germany . When Lenin fled the country and other leading Bolsheviks were arrested or went into hiding, it appeared that the chance to seize power had gone and that the party was in decline.
	What were the consequences of the July days?	• A new government was set up with Kerensky as prime-minister. He accused the Bolsheviks of being German spies because he knew that Lenins return to Russia had been financed by Germany. Moreover, much of the Bolsheviks revolutionary activity since April had been backed by German money. • The Bolsheviks were denounced as traitors — their newspaper, Pravda, was closed down, Lenin fled the country and Kamenev was arrested.
	How did Kerensky respond to the July days?	About 400 people were killed and injured during the chaos and Kerensky claimed that the Bolsheviks who had been involved in the trouble with all in the pay of Germany . When Lenin fled the country and other leading Bolsheviks were arrested or went into hiding, it appeared that the chance to seize power had gone and that the party was in decline.
	How was the bolsheviks not finished after the July days?	– Lenin directed them from Finland and they were able to continue to function and maintain a high profile. – Lenin altered his views about the peasants and their role in the revolution. He excepted the land seizures and encourage even more, thus winning the support in the countryside. , The slogan land to the peasants was continually emphasised by the Bolsheviks. – Furthermore Lenny knew that the Russian army could be swayed towards the Bolshevik anti-war policy – the majority of soldiers were really "peasants in uniform". The new Bolshevik slogan of "peace, land and bread" began to attract more and more followers during his critical times. Lennon also use the simple slogan – 'all power to the Soviets' and many bolsheviks came to realise that if they controlled the Soviets across Russia then they would come closer to securing power in the country.
	What was Krensky determined to do after he became prime minister?	After the July days, Alexander Kerensky was appointed the new prime minister. He was determined to continue the war and wait until the election before any decisions will be made about ending Russia's participation.
	Despite Kerenskys objective's what were the worries of the Russian people?	There was growing disquiet among many Russian people because nothing seemed to have changed since the abdication of Tsar Nicholas.
	After the July days what was the status of the Bolsheviks?	Moreover, the power and influence of the Bolsheviks were growing. By September, they controlled the Moscow Soviet and also dominated . the Petrograd Soviet. Party membership was almost 250,000. Furthermore, the involvement of Trotsky had given a tremendous boost to the Bolshevik Party by September.
	What did the Kornilov revolt show?	The limited power and control of the Provisional Government was shown in the Kornilov Revolt.
	What was the esscence of the Kornilov affair?	There is some debate about the events surrounding the Revolt but some points are clear. In September 1917, General Kornilov, the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Russian armed forces, threatened to seize power in Petrograd.
	Why did Kornilov decide to take control? What was his aim?	Kornilov did not agree with the Petrograd Soviets wish to end the war and he sought to set up a military dictatorship. He would ensure that there was no anarchy or socialist-style government in Russia. If Russia was to defeat Germany, then there had to be stability at home. Kornilov said he would help to restore order.
	What was Kerenskys attitude before the Kornilov revolt?	He has a lot of pride in his position and wants to keep power, he wants to work towards the provisional governments goals ie. a constituent assembly and constitutional government.
	What does Kerenskys appointment show? What did his appointment achieve?	Kerenskys appointment reflects the need for the PG to be stronger and get rid of the chaos and unrest of the time. But Kerenskys appointment doesn't stop the chaos, strikes on the streets of Petrograd., things didn't really improve that much.
	What was added to the chaos in Petrograd during the Kornilove revolt?	-factory owners increasingly are loosing control of their workers and are unable to reach their production requirements, -crime and violence become very common, armed deserters from the army and navy are roaming around the streets causing trouble,
	What was the status of WW1 before the Kornilov affair?	The Germans are getting closer and closer to Petrograd taking places like the port of Riga, which means the Russians are starting to loose control of the western part of their country.
	What do all these elements cause?	The PG is under threat at this point
	How was Kerensky being pressured by political groups?	On the left he at threat by a popular uprising on the right he was at threat from perhaps a want to establish a coup and a law and order dictatorship.So on some respects it was just a matter of time before something more successful happened.
	What was the middle and upper classes views at this point?	They considered that Russia was into anarchy and if it continued to spiral downwards in that way the Germans would overtake Russia. Soviet + Bolsheviks were blamed by these classes for the worst of the problems, the upper and middle classes thought the PG was not able to control them as well as they should, that they were not strong enough to bring socialism under control.
	What was Kornilovs reputation before the offensive?	Kornilov has a reputation for courage + blunt speaking but he wasn't necessarily very smart, he did have a following and a reputation for getting things done, Kerensky appointed him as cheif of the army on the 18th of July ,Kornilov was a figure head for those on the conservative side of politics who wanted to replace Kerensky + establish a military dictatorship that would take control of the country. His supporters included key politicians , ex-Duma members, Conservative and centre parties, top military personnel and banking and industrial workers.
	What were the steps of the Kornilov offensive?	1) Kornilov put pressure on Kerensky and told him that he needed to dissolve the Soviets and reedy abolish law and order. Kerensky as the new prime minister wanted to control the Soviets better but was not ready to dissolve them , he still has socialist leanings, and a good connection to the socialist movement. 2)Eventually because of this disagreement Kerensky dismisses Kornilov 3)Kornilov decides that the PG isn't going to be able to control the socialist movements + implant the more conservative approach to Russian politics which he hand his supporters would like. 4)He issues calls to Russia to save their dying motherland, gathering loyal troops around him including Kozaks and it seems he's about to march into Petrograd and seize control of the country for himself. 5) Kerensky is under threat he cannot trust troops in Petrograd because it is quite possible they will turn to Kornilov who until very recently was their leader, Kerenaky needs support from someone else so he decides to ask the Petrograd to help.
	why would the Soviets help Kerensky at this point?	- It is presented to the people that Kornilov is undertaking a counter revolution against the initial Feburary revolution, Kornilovs attempt is presented to the workers , the peasants, and everyday workers and soldiers as an attempt to other throw what the people had achieved to this point. so the soviet is appealing to the population particularly the workers and soldiers asking them to stay loyal to the revolutionary government, so they do support Kerensky but only to stop Kornilovs attempted revolution.
	What were the steps of the Kornilov offensive?	Kornilov then decided to march on Petrograd to save the Provisional Government. (There is some evidence to show that Kerensky asked Kornilov to march on Petrograd but then changed his mind.) To win support and clearly explain his aims, Kornilov issued his own manifesto which: • attacked the Bolsheviks in the Petrograd Soviet • asked for the war to be continued • called for the meeting of a Constituent Assembly.
	What sort of help did Kerensky ask from the Soviets?	Remembering the Soviet had access to workers soldiers and sailors and over 1917 many of these had organised themselves into little militia groups which called themselves the red guard defending socialist ideals that they felt they were working for. Kerensky was able to provide additional rifles to these groups to defend the revolution if Kornilov comes in with his army. Kerensky also agrees to release Bolshevik+ soviet prisoners who had been arrested like Trotsky and Stalin. The rail workers also assisted by sabotaging the rail carts carrying Kornilovs troops into Perrograd. They also sabotage communication systems.
	What was the result of Kornilovs attempt?	Kornilovs attempt at counter revolution fails miserably they don't even get into Petrograd the troops are stopped on the way because of the interference by the rail road workers and there is discussion and most of the soldiers turn around and leave so Kornilov isn't even able to lead his troop into Petrograd.
	Why were the consequences of the Kornillov revolt?	-Kerenskys government looked rather weak -And the Bolsheviks who had secured control of the of the Petrograd Soviet were in ascendency. -Many Bolsheviks were armed and those imprisoned in July were free , many Bolsheviks start d to sense that their time was coming -With the arrest of Kornilov the army high command lost its commander-in-cheif and more sank even lower -Officers continued to be murdered and desertions reached an even high level. The army was no longer in a position to set up a military dictatorship.
	What did Lenin do after the Kornilov revolt?	Lenin, in exile in Finland, began to make plans not only for his return to Petrograd but also for the Bolshevik seizure of power. Lenin could now show that the Bolsheviks had helped to save Petrograd and this helped to wipe out memories of the July Days. Lenin and Trotsky acknowledged that the arming of the Red Guard was crucial and he creation of the workers militia during the Revolt would be oF great help whenever they decided to seize power. Trotsky and other leading Bolsheviks in Petrograd had become aware during August that public opinion was moving towards them but they also saw that there was a sharp swing after the failure of Kornilov. It was also encouraging that Bolsheviks in other towns and cities reported increased support at this time. Lenins famous judgement about the Provisional Government after the Kornilov revolt was that it was now 'ripe for plucking'.
	Key feature of the development of the Bolshevik party?	• Formed in 1903, following the split in the Social Democratic Party • Led by Lenin who put forward his own interpretation of Marxism. • Played little part in the 1905 Revolution • Lenin instructed the Bolsheviks to boycott the elections for the 1906 duma. • After 1906, Lenin fought desperately to keep the party and spirit of revolution alive. Party funds were built up by a series of robberies ~ called 'expropriations' - and hundreds took place each year before 1914. • Pre-1914, Bolshevik membership never exceeded 10,000. • In 1914, the Okhrana (secret police) reported that the Bolsheviks were not a strong threat to tsarism.
	What factors influenced the Lenin's decision to seize power?	The All-Russian Congress of Soviets was due to meet in late October and it was possible that the Bolsheviks would not have a majority of representatives in it. If, however, the Bolsheviks overthrew the Provisional Government before this, they could present their new authority as a fait accompli, which the Congress would find difficult to reject. Furthermore, Lenin was also aware that the Bolsheviks were unlikely to win a majority of seats in the Constituent Assembly - but if they were inpower before the elections, then the results could be ignored if they were unfavourable. Lenin was calling for a revolution, but he still remained in Finland, despite the fact that the Provisional Government had released all political prisoners who had been arrested in July. In September, Lenin wrote 'History will not forgive us if we do not assume power.
	When did Lenin return to Petrograd and what do you do as soon as he got to Petrograd?	He finally returned to Petrograd on 7 October and then went into hiding. On 10 October, Lenin persuaded the Bolshevik Central Committee to agree in principle on an uprising, but two influential leaders — Kamenev and Zinoviev voiced strong objections. These two published their objections in a newspaper, alerting Kerensky to the Bolshevik threat. Lenin was furious.
	What did Kerensky do you in response to the suggestion in the newspaper of a possible bolshevik revolution?	On 23 October, Kerensky tried to remove the Bolshevik threat - he closed down the Bolshevik papers {Pravda and Izvestiya) and attempts were made to round up leading Bolsheviks. The Bolsheviks were forced into action and Lenin ordered the revolution to begin before Kerensky could capture them. Thus, ironically, Kerensky had decided the exact timing of the revolution.
	State the basic elements of Trotsky's biography?	As you can see from his biographical details, Trotsky was in exile at the time of the February Revolution. On his return to Russia in May 1917, he was concerned that many Mensheviks were supporting the Provisional Government. He was arrested in July as a result of his revolutionary activities and the following month he became an official Bolshevik Party member. When the Bolsheviks secured control of the Petrograd Soviet, Trotsky was elected as its leader and this became the key to his success. In October, he became the dominant member of the three-man Military Revolutionary Committee (MRC) of the Soviet. This provided a useful screen for his secret preparations. The MRC — in theory - controlled 20,000 Red Guards, 60,000 Baltic sailors and the 150,000 soldiers of the Petrograd garrison.
	How do you Trotsky prepare for the October revolution?	From his office in the Smolny Institute, a building formerly used as a girls' school, Trotsky made his plans for the seizure of rhe key buildings of the Provisional Government. In October, the Bolsheviks began to reduce their massive clcmonstraiions and street skirmishes, because the crowds were not always easy to control. When they started preparing for the revolution, they began to rely more on small, disciplined units of soldiers and workers. The Bolsheviks, under the leadership of Trotsky, prepared for their overthrow of the Provisional Government on 24 October.
	What was Lenin's role in the October revolution?	The role of Lenin was crucial. Lenin persuaded Bolsheviks to oppose the war, unlike the Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries. These nvo parties were still following Marx's ideas that the workers' revolution was many years away — Lenin had already changed his views in the April Theses (see page 33). He gave the Bolsheviks simple slogans such as 'Peace, Land and Bread' and 'All power to the Soviets . These were easily understood by the ordinary people.Lenin had tremendous energy and vitality and his commitment to revolution spurred on the Bolsheviks. His decision to oppose the war was the key reason why Bolshevik support rose throughout 1917. He created the Red Guard and brought German money, which helped to equip them. Lenin persuaded the majority of the Central Committee to seize power in October. Trotsky organised the takeover, but without Lenin the Bolsheviks would not have even tried to remove the Provisional Government. Within a week of the revolution in Petrograd, the Bolsheviks took control of Moscow and then began the work of securing control of the whole of Russia.
	What were the weaknesses of the provisional government	The Provisional Government was weak and really only a temporary body. It had not been elected by the people of Russia. Moreover, it had had to share power in Petrograd with the Soviet from the beginning and could not overturn Soviet Order Number One (see page 31). Kerensky was never able to remove the Bolsheviks completely and during the Kornilov Revolt he had actually armed them. As 1917 unfolded, the Provisional Government was unable to win over the support of ordinary people in Petrograd - the Bolsheviks and other parties were able to publish so much propaganda that when the crisis came in October, Kerensky received little or no help.
	What were the weaknesses of the provisional government	The Provisional Government was weak and really only a temporary body. It had not been elected by the people of Russia. Moreover, it had had to share power in Petrograd with the Soviet from the beginning and could not overturn Soviet Order Number One (see page 31). Kerensky was never able to remove the Bolsheviks completely and during the Kornilov Revolt he had actually armed them. As 1917 unfolded, the Provisional Government was unable to win over the support of ordinary people inPetrograd - the Bolsheviks and other parties were able to publish so much propaganda that when the crisis came in October, Kerensky received little or no help.
	How did the Bolshevik control of the Armed Forces affect the successfulness of the October revolution?	The many political parties did not offer clear leadership during 1917. They all became discredited because they supported the continuation of the war. This led to discontent within the army and began to make it increasingly unreliable. The elections to the Constituent Assembly were delayed and the peasants demand for land was not addressed. Consequently, anarchy and the seizing of land in the countryside increased as 1917 wore on, and left-wing agitators infiltrated the army and destroyed the morale of the soldiers.
	What were the weaknesses of the provisional government	The Provisional Government was weak and really only a temporary body. It had not been elected by the people of Russia. Moreover, it had had to share power in Petrograd with the Soviet from the beginning and could not overturn Soviet Order Number One (see page 31).Kerensky was never able to remove the Bolsheviks completely and during the Kornilov Revolt he had actually armed them. As 1917 unfolded, the Provisional Government was unable to win over the support of ordinary people in Petrograd - the Bolsheviks and other parties were able to publish so much propaganda that when the crisis came in October, Kerensky received little or no help.
	How did the Bolshevik control of the Armed Forces affect the successfulness of the October revolution?	The many political parties did not offer clear leadership during 1917. They all became discredited because they supported the continuation of the war. This led to discontent within the army and began to make it increasingly unreliable. The elections to the Constituent Assembly were delayed and the peasants demand for land was not addressed. Consequently, anarchy and the seizing of land in the countryside increased as 1917 wore on, and left-wing agitators infiltrated the army and destroyed the morale of the soldiers.
	How did the lack of alternative affect the successfulness of the Bolshevik revolution?	The many political parties did not offer clear leadership during 1917. They all became discredited because they supported the continuation of the war. This led to discontent within the army and began to make it increasingly unreliable. The elections to the Constituent Assembly were delayed and the peasants' demand for land was not addressed. Consequently, anarchy and the seizing of land in the countryside increased as 1917 wore on, and left-wing agitators infiltrated the army and destroyed the morale of the soldiers.
	What was the government that Lenin set up after the October Revolution called and when did he set it up?	Sovarkom 1917 short for council of people's commissars
	What happened in the aftermath of the revolution (October)?	During the weeks after the Bolshevik takeover, Soviet throughout Russia joined in the revolution and took control of most towns and cities. By the end of 1917, nearly all Russia was in Soviet hands. This did not mean that Lenin and the Bolsheviks had total control of Russia. Not all the Soviets were run by the Bolsheviks and, in the countryside, most peasants supported the socialist revolutionaries.
	What happened in the aftermath of the revolution (October)?	During the weeks after the Bolshevik takeover, Soviet throughout Russia joined in the revolution and took control of most towns and cities. By the end of 1917, nearly all Russia was in Soviet hands. This did not mean that Lenin and the Bolsheviks had total control of Russia. Not all the Soviets were run by the Bolsheviks and, in the countryside, most peasants supported the socialist revolutionaries.
	What in terms of the provisional government's plans threatened to compromise this new government created by Lenin?	The provisional government had arranged for elections to be held in November for a new kind of parliament, called the constituent assembly, It seems that the socialist revolutionaries would win more votes in the Bolsheviks. If that happened the Bolsheviks would have to hand over control of Sovnarkom to their rivals.
	How did the April thesis cause Lennon trouble after the October revolution?	Lenin had to keep promises he had openly made in April thesis such as giving land to the peasants.
	When were Sovnarkoms decrees?	November and December 1917
	When were Sovnarkoms decrees?	November and December 1917
	What were the first free decrees?	#1decree on land – 540,000,000 acres of land taken from the tsar, The nobles, the church and other landlords. Peasant to set up a committee. to divide the land fairly. #2 Decree On Unemployment Insurance Employment insurance to be introduced for all workers against injury, illness and unemployment. #3 decree on peace Sovnarkom Intended to make peace immediately was Russia's opponents in the war.
	When were Sovnarkoms decrees?	November and December 1917
	What were the first free decrees? (November)	#1decree on land – 540,000,000 acres of land taken from the tsar, The nobles, the church and other landlords. Peasant to set up a committee. to divide the land fairly. #2 Decree On Unemployment Insurance Employment insurance to be introduced for all workers against injury, illness and unemployment. #3 decree on peace Sovnarkom Intended to make peace immediately was Russia's opponents in the war.
	What were the second three decrees made by Sovnarkom? (November)	#4 decree on work An eight hour day and a 40 hour week for industrial workers to be introduced .There were restrictions on overtime and there was to be holiday entitlement for workers. #5 decree on titles All titles and class distinctions were abolished. Women were declared equal to men. #6 decree on press All non-Bolshevik newspapers were banned.
	What were the first three decrees made by Sovnarkom in December?	#1 Decree on workers' control All factories to be placed under the control of elected commit or of workers #2 Decree to set up the political police The 'All Russian Extraordinary Commission to fight Counter-Revolution and Espionage' was formed, known as the Cheka. #3 Decree on political parties Russia's main liberal party, the Constitutional Democratic Party, was banned
	What were the last two decrees made by Sovnarkom in December?	#4 Decree on banking All banks in Russia came under Sovnarkom's control #5 Decree on marriage Couples could have non-religious weddings and divorce was made easier
	When will elections is held for the constituent assembly (Russia's new parliament)	November 1917 they were the first free elections in Russian history
	What were the results of the elections (constituent assembly)?	The socialist revolutionaries gained more seats in the assembly than all the other parties put together.
	Why was Lenin concerned by the results of the elections for the constituent assembly	Lenin was concerned that the Bolsheviks had gained only a quarter of the votes and these were primarily from the working classes of the cities. He was also concerned that some of the nationalities, such as Finns and Estonians, were trying to break away and he wanted to avoid the disintegration of Russia.
	How did Lenin act out against the results of the constituent assembly elections?	Lenin wrote an article for Pravda, in which he stated that, because there were Soviets in Russia, there was no need for the Constituent Assembly.
	When did the constituent assembly first meet?	Nevertheless, the Constituent Assembly met on 18 January 1918.
	What was the job of the constituent assembly?	It would have the job of drawing up a new constitution for Russia.
	What happened during this first meeting of the constituent assembly?	The Bolsheviks and the left-wing SRs proposed that the power of the Assembly be limited. When this was defeated, Lenin made his decision to dissolve it. Less than 24 hours after the Assembly had met,Lenin gave the order to dissolve it. Bolshevik Red Guards killed and wounded more than 100 people who demonstrated in support of the Assembly outside the Tauride Palace. Two leaders of the Cadets were killed in a hospital. The Red Guards then prevented the elected Deputies from entering the Assembly and closed it down .Lenin had removed a threat to the Bolsheviks andSovnarkom at a stroke.
	What was Lenin's view on the war?	Lenin had opposed the war against Germany from. the very beginning, and much of the support the Bolsheviks had gained came from their opposition to the conflict. He was aware that if the Bolsheviks were to hold on to the power they had won in October 1917, then there would have to be an immediate peace settlement. His greatest concern was that any prolongation of the war would mean that the army would not continue to support him.
	When and where were the peace talks with Germany?	Peace talks with Germany began on 3 1917 and Lenin sent Trotsky (Commissar jbr Foreign Affairs) as Russia's representative. Talks were held at Brest-Litovsk, near the German border.
	What do you Trotsky try to achieve during the Brest-Litovsk meeting?	Trotsky and his negotiating team tried to prolong the talks as long as possible, because they believed that workers in central Europe were on the brink of revolution. Wlien this revolution came, the war would end and then Germany and Russia would make a fair peace.
	What forced Lenin's hand into making peace with the Germans?	As the German army advanced into Russia in February 1918, Lenin's hand was forced and he decided to make peace.
	What were the terms of the treaty? (Brest-Litovsk)	The terms of the treaty were the harshest possible and Lenin was heavily criticised by many Bolsheviks. For Lenin and Trotsky, Russia's suffering was a small price to pay for the coming world socialist revolution.
	What led to the treaty in terms of Lenin's actions and what effects dos the treaty actually have?	Lenin won the debate in the Bolshevik Party about the treaty, but only by the narrowest of margins.His gamble paid off, because with the arrival of US troops and the failure of the German Spring Offensive, war in Europe was over in the autumn of 1918 and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk became meaningless. The defeat of Germany now meant that the treaty had no legality.
	What are the threat other than the Germans came to light in 1918?	Just as the major danger of Germany was removed. Lenin had to face internal threats and, by the spring of 1918, Russia was convulsed by civil war.
	What was the basics of the Civil War?	The Russian Civil War lasted for almost three years niul involved many groups. Furthermore, it was complicated by the involvement of many foreign countries, all of whom had been Russia's allies in the First World War. The civil war seemed to bring together all the problems of the tsarist years, the First World War and the revolutions of 1917.
	What led to the treaty in terms of Lenin's actions and what effects dos the treaty actually have?	Lenin won the debate in the Bolshevik Party about the treaty, but only by the narrowest of margins.His gamble paid off, because with the arrival of US troops and the failure of the German SpringOffensive, war in Europe was over in the autumn of 1918 and the Treaty of Brest-Lkovsk became meaningless. The defeat of Germany now meant that the treaty had no legality.
	How was the decision to dissolve the constituent assembly A major factor in the start of the civil war?	The decision to dissolve the Constituent Assembly in 1918 did not win the Bolsheviks any friends. The Social Revolutionaries (SRs) and Cadets accused the Bolsheviks of seizing power by force and demanded the re-calling of the Assembly.They were seeking an opportunity to attack the Bolsheviks. In 1918, open challenges to the Bolsheviks became more common. The SRs tried to seize control of the Moscow Soviet and there were even several assassination attempts on Lenin.
	What are the factors encouraged the development of the Civil War?	The desperate economic state of many parts of Russia meant that there was still hunger within the country and this led to growing opposition to the Bolsheviks. The starvation worsened after the Brest-Litovsk treaty when the Ukraine was lost, as the Ukraine was the main provider of grain for Russia.The different groups that opposed the Bolsheviks are explained in the following boxes:
	What were "the whites" in the Civil War?	The zcollective name for those who opposed the Bolsheviks (the Keels) was the Whites. The Whites had some military support from ex-tsarist officers and were in a position to fight the Bolsheviks - for example, there was General Denikin in the Caucasus, General Yudenich in Estonia and Admiral Kolchak in Siberia. The Czech Legion gave its support to the White generals.
	Who were "The greens"?	The national minorities, such as the Georgians, saw an opportunity to establish their independence from Russia. If the Bolsheviks were weak and could be attacked on many fronts, then independence was a possibility. Those who fought the Bolsheviks as groups seeking independence from Russia were known as the Greens.
	What were "The foreign powers"?	Russia s ex-allies, Britain, France, the UbA and Japan, all intervened in the war to support the Whites for several reasons: 1 Lenin had withdrawn from the war and signed the Treaty of Brest-Liovsk. The Bolsheviks cancelled payments of all loam given by the Allies to Russia. ( Britain, France and the USA feared the spread of communism to their own countries. British troops landed in Murmansk in the north, in support of General Yudenich, while Japanese troops landed in the Far East at Vladivostock. British and French troops also supported General Denikin in the south, while the USA sent arms and supplies to help the Whites.
	Who were "the Czech Legion"?	There is no specific date that marks the start of the civil war but, by May 1918, events escalated when the Czech Legion revolted. Around 50,000 Czechs, who were prisoners of war in Russia, seized control of the Trans-Siberian railway and began to head for Moscow. They attacked the Red Army and were able to drive Bolshevik troops out of Siberia.
	How are the Reds fairing at the start of the civil war?	At the start of the war, the Bolshevik (Lenin by this time was using the term Communist) government had to move to Moscow and took desperate protective measures to maintain their power. At first the civil war did not go well for the Reds. They were attacked on all sides by White armies led by experienced commanders and suffered defeat after defeat in 1918 and early 1919: • General Yudenich, with British support, attacked from the north-west and threatened Petrograd. • General Denikin, supported mainly by the French, threatened the south, especially the Ukraine. • With British support. Admiral Kolchak attacked from the east.
	What were the red strengths?	-The Reds adopted the policy of War Communism , which meant that all necessary resources were poured into the army ~ even if this meant peasants and workers went hungry -The Red Army was ably led by Trotsky. Conscription was introduced for men aged 18-40, and Trotsky was given the job of organizing the enlarged Red Army. Trotsky's army did not have enough officers and so he cleverly recruited former officers of the tsar's army. There were about 22,000 such officers, who were often blackmailed into fighting for the Bolsheviks. -The Red Army eventually had some five million troops Peasants would often not support the Whites because they feared that the old tsarist system would be restored - for such people, the Bolsheviks were the lesser of two evils. -The use of the Cheka (secret police) terrified ordinary Russians. Those found to have helped the Whites or Greens could expect no mercy. Some estimates put the deaths at the hands of the Cheka as high as 50,000 during the civil war. (Estimates for those killed by the Whites are even higher.)
	What were the white weaknesses?	-The Whites were not united in their approach and operated as separate groups. The death of the tsar also weakened support for the Whites, especially from those who had supported his restoration. Nicholas and his family had been kept prisoner by the Reds in Siberia and, later, at Ekaterinburg in the Urals. However, by July 1918, Admiral Kolchak's White armies were approaching Ekaterinburg. Rather than allow the royal family to fall into the hands of the Whites, the Red Guards took them to a cellar where they were shot at point blank range. In later years, there were claims that one of the tsar's daughters, Anastasia, had survived. This seems very unlikely and, in any case, the claims were made by people who believed they would inherit the Romanov dynasty millions. Whites were spread over large areas, whereas the Reds were in a central area with good communications. Morale in the White armies was often low and there were many desertions Foreign intervention from Britain, France and the USA was half-hearted and served only to increase support for the Communists.
	How did the tide begin to turn in the Civil War?	However, in 1919 the tide beean to turn, due to the leadership and organisation of Trotsky and the weaknesses and divisions of the Whites, who did not attack simultaneously. By mid-1919 Yudenich was within 48 kilometres of Petrograd. However,his army was defeated by the stubborn resistance of the Red Army led by Trotsky.In the south, Denikin advanced to within 320 kilometres of Moscow. However, a determined counter-attack by Red forces forced Denikin's army to retreat. In the east, Kolchaks army suffered from internal divisions and differences. For example, the Social Revolurionaries refused to fight with Kolchak. In 1920 Kolchak himself was shot. The table opposite shows in more detail why the ride turned for the Bolsheviks in 1919.
	What was war communism?	The measures that Lennon and the communists took to keep the army supply during the civil war came known as a war communism. War communism was not one particular law passed by the Bolsheviks. It was a whole series of laws or measures by which the government took control of the economy.
	So what economic reasons was war communism introduced?	The peasants wanted to keep the land they have been given but were unwilling to sell the food they grew. Lenin wanted to control the supply of food for the towns.
	So what economic reasons was war communism introduced?	The peasants wanted to keep the land they have been given but were unwilling to sell the food they grew. Lenin wanted to control the supply of food for the towns.
	What was the social reasons for why war communism will introduced?	There was severe shortages of food and other basic necessities in Russia. Prices had risen rapidly and there was inflation.
	What were the political reasons for why war communism was introduced?	The policy followed the Communist idea of central control and direction of the Economy.
	What was the military reasons for why war communism was introduced?	The Bolsheviks had to guarantee supplies for the huge red Army during the civil war against the whites.
	What did Lenin set up by the middle of 1918?	Lenin set up the Supreme Council of N£ Economy (Vesenkha) to create a planned economy and a fair society.
	What were the main features of war communism?	By the middle of 1918, War Communism meant that the government controlled every aspect of economic life. The main features of War Communism were: • Rationing of food in cities was to be strictly applied during food shortages. • Private trading was banned. Peasants could no longer sell their surplus food for profit but had to give it to the government. Lenin ordered squads into the countryside to seize food if peasants proved unwilling to surrender their produce. • Factories with more than ten workers were nationalised. This meant that the state now owned the factories. Vesenkha decided how -much was to be produced in each industry. Workers were under government control and could be told where to work. • Rapid inflation, which left money valueless. People had to barter, which meant exchanging goods rather than using money.
	What were the consequences of war communism?	In theory, Lenin's decision to introduce War Communism was sound, but practically it was flawed. Both workers and peasants objected to it and, as a result, productivity fell Weir Communism was successful on one level because it supplied the Red Army with food and enabled the victory over the Whites. However, the policy failed to create the Utopian communist state Lenin hoped for. - Peasants did not respond well to the idea of giving up produce to the state, and so they grew less and bred fewer animals. The resulting food shortage in 1920 developed into a famine In 1921. It has been estimated that about seven million people died during the famine. There had to be international aid for Russia in the crisis. A group called Workers' Opposition was formed to press for changes to the policy. One of the groups calls was for 'Soviets without Communists'.
	What does this image show ?	The photograph below shows the greatest challenge for Lenin and Trotsky over War Communism, the Kronstadt Naval Rebellion in 1921. Thousands of sailors protested at events in Russia and objected, like the Workers Opposition, to the way the Communist Party (the Bolsheviks were now called Communists) was taking power away from the Soviets.
	What did the Kronstadt sailors demand?	-All political prisoners belonging to Socialist parties to be set free. -Because the present Soviets do not express the will of the workers and peasants, new elections should he held. -Freedom of speech and press to be granted to workers and peasants.(CENSORSHIP) -Also freedom of assembly and of trade unions and peasants' associations. PECA
	How did the Bolsheviks react? (Kronstadt mutiny)	Lenin wanted no opposition and decided to stop the protests. Trotsky had to use the Red Army to put down the rebellion and 20,000 men were killed or wounded in the fighting. The surviving rebels were either executed by the Cheka or put in a gulag. For other opponents, the end of the rebellion meant the end of any hope of removing the Communists. Lenin realised he had to change the policy - for him, Kronstadt was the 'flash that lit up reality'. In March 1921, Lenin abandoned War Communism and introduced the New Economic Policy in its place.
	What were the reasons that the new economic policy was introduced? (NEP)	The New Economic Policy (NEP) was intended by Lenin primarily to meet Russia's urgent need for food. If the peasants could not be forced, then they must be persuaded. He also felt that the new policy would give Russia some breathing space after a period of almost eight years' war. There were some Communists who felt that they were betraying the revolution by reverting back to capitalism.
	What did NEP state?	The NEP said that: • peasants would still have to give a fixed amount of grain to the government, but they could sell their surplus for profit again • peasants who increased their food production would pay less tax • factories with less than 20 workers would be riven back to their owners and consumer goods could be produced and sold for profit • people could use money again and a new trouble was introduced • key industries, such as coal and steel, still remained under state control.
	What does NEP state #2?	The NEP also included the electrification of Russia. Lenin was convinced that electrical power was the key to economic growth. A network of power stations was established in the years after 1921. NEP also encouraged foreign trade with countries such as Britain because Lenin believed that the move towards capitalism would finally destroy communism in Russia. Over the next few years, there were large-scale exchanges of Western industrial goods for Russian oil and wheat.
	When did Lenin die and what affect did this have on the debate over NEP?	Debate about the NEP continued throughout its existence. However, when Lenin died in 1924, the debate was set to become ever fiercer within the Communist Party.
	What did Trotsky think of NEP?	Trotsky described the New Economic Policy as the 'first sign of the degeneration of Bolshevism'.
	What did Trotsky think of NEP?	Trotsky described the New Economic Policy as the 'first sign of the degeneration of Bolshevism'.
	What were the points made by those who criticised NEP	One rumour had it that the letters NEP stood for 'New Exploitation of the Proletariat'. Those who criticised the NEP said that a new class was created - NEPMEN . This term was applied to those who stood to gain from the capitalism permitted under the new policy: these were the kulaks, the retailers and the small manufacturers. It was said that greed and selfishness were returning to Russia. However, there was clearly an economic recovery under the New Economic Policy.
	State two figures that improved under NEP?	In agriculture grain harvest per million tonnes went from 37.6 in 1921 to 72.5 1925. In industry amount of finished cloth reduced per million metres went from 105 in 1921 to 1688 in 1925. ElectricityPer million Kwhs went from 520 in 1921 to 2925 in 1925.
	State the main events of Stalins life from 1879 to 1899?	Stalin was born in 1879 in the state of Georgia, the son of a bootmaker. His real name was Joseph Djugashvili. He was from a poor background and had a harsh upbringing. Nevertheless, his mother was determined that he should do well and she worked hard to pay for his education. Indeed, he gained a scholarship to a college for training priests in Tiblisi. However, he lost interest in God when he discovered Marxism and, in 1899, was expelledfrom the college.
	For the key events in Stalin's life from 1899 to 1917?	He greatly admired the writings of Lenin and became a member of the Bolshevik Party, taking the name of Stalin, meaning 'Man of Steel'. In the period after 1902, he became an active revolutionary, taking part in over 1000 raids to seize money for the party. He was arrested and exiled to Siberia eight times, escaping on seven occasions.
	What are the key events in Stalin's life from 1917 to 1922?	He was freed from exile in 1917 and returned to Petrograd to become editor of Pravda, the Bolshevik newspaper. The evidence suggests he played little role in the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 (see page 42). Nevertheless, he was made Commissar of Nationalities in Lenin's government and crushed a rebellion in his own state of Georgia with great brutality. In 1922, he was given what was regarded as the most boring and dull of jobs,General Secretary of the Bolshevik Party, responsible for the day-to-day running of the Party and the appointment and dismissal of key members.
	How did Lenin's death affect rivalry between different members of the Bolshevik party?	After Lenin s death in 1924 there was a struggle for power in Russia. There were five possible candidates to succeed Lenin. If you had been able to place a bet on the successful candidate, the odds would have read something like those in the betting shop below. By 1928 Stalin had emerged as leader. Why was the rank outsider successful?
	How did Lenin's death affect rivalry between different members of the Bolshevik party?	After Lenin s death in 1924 there was a struggle for power in Russia. There were five possible candidates to succeed Lenin. If you had been able to place a bet on the successful candidate, the odds would have read something like those in the betting shop below. By 1928 Stalin had emerged as leader. Why was the rank outsider successful?
	What were Leon Trotsky's main good points?	Leon Trotsky 2/1 favourite He had organised the successful Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 and led the Red Army to victory in the Russian Civil War. He was very intelligent and Lenin's choice as his successor.
	How did Lenin's death affect rivalry between different members of the Bolshevik party?	After Lenin s death in 1924 there was a struggle for power in Russia. There were five possible candidates to succeed Lenin. If you had been able to place a bet on the successful candidate, the odds would have read something like those in the betting shop below. By 1928 Stalin had emerged as leader. Why was the rank outsider successful?
	What were Leon Trotsky's main good points?	Leon Trotsky 2/1 favourite He had organised the successful Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 and led the Red Army to victory in the Russian Civil War. He was very intelligent and Lenin's choice as his successor.
	What were Lev Kamenev main good points?	Lev Kamenev 20/1 outsider Although he angered Lenin by opposing the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, he was made the leader of the Bolshevik Party in Moscow.
	What were Josef Stalins main good points?	oseph Stalin 100/1 rank outsider He had played little part in the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917. Moreover Lenin, himself, did not want Stalin to succeed him and, in his last testament, tried to warn other leading Bolsheviks about him
	What were Josef Stalins main good points?	oseph Stalin 100/1 rank outsider He had played little part in the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917. Moreover Lenin, himself, did not want Stalin to succeed him and, in his last testament, tried to warn other leading Bolsheviks about him
	What were Grigory Zinoviev's main good points?	Gregory Zinoviev 15/1 outsider He had helped Lenin to set up the Bolshevik Party in 1903. During Lenin's government he was made the Bolshevik Party boss in Petrograd and was head of the Comintern, the organisation through which Soviet Russia tried to bring about Communist revolutions in other countries.
	What were Josef Stalins main good points?	oseph Stalin 100/1 rank outsider He had played little part in the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917. Moreover Lenin, himself, did not want Stalin to succeed him and, in his last testament, tried to warn other leading Bolsheviks about him
	What were Grigory Zinoviev's main good points?	Gregory Zinoviev 15/1 outsider He had helped Lenin to set up the Bolshevik Party in 1903. During Lenin's government he was made the Bolshevik Party boss in Petrograd and was head of the Comintern, the organisation through which Soviet Russia tried to bring about Communist revolutions in other countries.
	What were Nikolai Bukharins main good points	Nikolai Bukharin 25/1 outsider He was a leading Bolshevik who had opposed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk by which Russia lost much land to Germany in March 1918. He was a firm supporter of Lenin's New Economic Policy.
	How did Stalin remove his rivals interms of Lenin's will and testament?	Lenin's Testament meant that Stalin had little or no chance of winning the leadership contest. However, he cunningly persuaded other members of the Central Committee, especially Kamenev and Zinoviev, to keep the Testament secret for the sake of Party unity and because it also criticised them.
	How did Stalin remove his rivals in terms of Lenin's funeral?	Lenin's Funeral Stalin successfully presented himself as Lenin's close follower. For example, Stalin appeared as the chief mourner at Lenin's funeral, while Trotsky was conspicuous by his absence. Trotsky was ill and Stalin tricked him into believing the funeral was the following day. Trotsky was seen as arrogant and disrespectful of Lenin because he could not be bothered to turn up for his funeral.
	How did Stalin remove his rivals in terms of the assassination of Trotsky?	In 1929 Trotsky was expelled from the Soviet union. In 1937 he settled in Mexico, where he wrote many articles attacking Stalin, who saw him as a major threat.on 20th of August 1940 Trotsky was assassinated by hide hitman, Ramon Mercador who put a ice pick through his head.
	How did you stall in a move his rivals in terms of "socialism in one country"?	'Socialism in One Country" Stalin worked closely with Zinoviev and Kamenev and, in 1925, they forced Trotsky to resign as Commissar of War. He no longer had control of the Red Army. Moreover, Stalin packed the Congress of Soviets with his supporters to gain support for his policy of 'Socialism in One Country.
	How did Stalin remove his rivals in terms of Zinoviev and Kamanev?	Zinoviev and Kamenev In 1926 Stalin worked with Bukharin and the right wing of the Communist Party, who supported his idea of 'Socialism in One Country, against Zinoviev, Kamenev and Trotsky who, in 1927, were all expelled from the Party.
	How did Stalin remove his rivals in terms of the Bukahrin?	By 1928 Stalin felt strong enough to turn against Bukharin and his supporters on the right wing of the Party. They supported the NEP, which Stalin wanted to abandon and replace with a new policy of industrial expansion. In 1929, Bukharin was forced to resign.
	What were the strengths of Stalin #1?	Stalin held the key role of General Secretary in Communist Party. He used this position to appoint officials who supported him and he removed known supporters of Trotsky in order to build up a power base. He soon commanded the support of most Party officials.
	What was the strength of Stalin #2?	He built up an image of someone who had been close to Lenin, and was therefore his natural successor. He was the chief mourner at Lenin s funeral and made a speech praising him. He had photos published showing him at Lenins side.
	What are the strengths of Stalin #3?	Stalin cleverly played off his rivals against each other. He knew that Kamenev and Zinoviev feared Trotsky and used their support to remove him. He then allied himself with Bukharin and the right wing of the Party to remove Kamenev and Zinoviev.
	How did Stalin remove his rivals in terms of Lenin's funeral?	Lenin's Funeral Stalin successfully presented himself as Lenins close follower. For example, Stalin appeared as the chief mourner at Lenins funeral, while Trotsky was conspicuous by his absence. Trotsky was ill and Stalin tricked him into believing the funeral was the following day. Trotsky was seen as arrogant and disrespectful of Lenin because he could not be bothered to turn up for his funeral.
	How did Stalin remove his rivals in terms of the assassination of Trotsky?	In 1929 Trotsky was expelled from the Soviet union. In 1937 he settled in Mexico, where he wrote many articles attacking Stalin, who saw him as a major threat.on 20th of August 1940 Trotsky was assassinated by hide hitman, Ramon Mercador who put a ice pick through his head.
	How did you stall in a move his rivals in terms of "socialism in one country"?	'Socialism in One Country" Stalin worked closely with Zinoviev and Kamenev and, in 1925, they forced Trotsky to resign as Commissar of War. He no longer had control of the Red Army. Moreover, Stalin packed the Congress of Soviets with his supporters to gain support for his policy of 'Socialism in One Country. M
	How did Stalin remove his rivals in terms of Zinoviev and Kamanev?	Zinoviev and Kamenev In 1926 Stalin worked with Bukharin and the right wing of the Communist Party, who supported his idea of 'Socialism in One Country, against Zinoviev, Kamenev and Trotsky who, in 1927, were all expelled from the Party.
	How did Stalin remove his rivals in terms of the Bukahrin?	By 1928 Stalin felt strong enough to turn against Bukharin and his supporters on the right wing of the Party. They supported the NEP, which Stalin wanted to abandon and replace with a new policy of industrial expansion. In 1929, Bukharin was forced to resign.
	What were the strengths of Stalin #1?	Stalin held the key role of General Secretary in Communist Party. He used this position to appoint officials who supported him and he removed known supporters of Trotsky in order to build up a power base. He soon commanded the support of most Party officials.
	What was the strength of Stalin #2?	He built up an image of someone who had been close to Lenin, and was therefore his natural successor. He was the chief mourner at Lenin s funeral and made a speech praising him. He had photos published showing him at Lenins side.
	What are the strengths of Stalin #3?	Stalin cleverly played off his rivals against each other. He knew that Kamenev and Zinoviev feared Trotsky and used their support to remove him. He then allied himself with Bukharin and the right wing of the Party to remove Kamenev and Zinoviev.
	What was Stalin strengths #4?	to remove Kamenev and Zinoviev. > He promoted Socialism in One Country, which won popular support within the Communist Party because it suggested that the Soviet Union should concentrate on securing communism at home before it supported revolutions abroad.
	What were the weaknesses of Trotsky #1?	Trotsky was seen by many Party members as an outsider, partly because he was Jewish, but also because, from 1903 to 1917, he had been a Menshevik, only changing to the Bolshevik Party shortly before the October Revolution.
	What were the weaknesses of Trotsky #2?	He made a series of tactical mistakes and allowed himself to be out-manouevred by Stalin. As leader of the Red Army, he had the power to remove his leader. Instead, he resigned as commander. In addition, he was not prepared to canvas support from his colleagues or rank-andfile members of the Communist Party.
	What are the weaknesses of Trotsky #3?	Trotsky promoted world revolution. He wanted the Soviet Union to support communist revolutions in other countries. However, most Russians preferred to concentrate their resources and energy on fully establishing communism in the Soviet Union ('Socialism in One Country).
	What were the purges?	In the 1930s, Stalin embarked on a series of purges, which led to the death and imprisonment of millions of Soviet people. No one was immune. Stalin purged anyone who held up, criticised or opposed his plans for collectivisation and industrialisation. Most of the accused were deported or imprisoned. Some were shot. The first victims were managers and workers accused of wrecking the first Five-Year Plan, kulaks accused of opposition to collectivisation and ordinary Party members accused of incorrect attitudes. The following flow diagram shows the key features of Stalin's purges.
	Why did Stalin introduce the purges?#1ThreatsToHisPosition	Stalin was concerned that his enemies were plotting to overthrow him. His real motive may have been to destroy any men who might form an alternative government - especially the 'Old Bolsheviks'.
	Why did Stalin introduce the purges? #2StalinWasNotTotallyResponsible	2. Stalin not totally responsible Others believe that once the purges started they had a snowball effect and were difficult to stop. Stalin may have started them but lost control at local level where they were often used by unscrupulous people to get rid of rivals or those in a coveted superior position.
	Why did Stalin introduced the purges? #FreeLinksWithEconomicPolicies	One theory argues that it was the only way Stalin could get mass forced labour for his industrial projects. The purges were also a convenient way of excusing setbacks. For example, failures to achieve targets under the Five-Year Plans (see page 106) could be blamed on sabotage rather than faults in the Plan. Stalin was convinced that he was the only person who could transform the Soviet Union into a modem, industrialised country and that it had to be done quickly. He believed that Hitler would attack the USSR and that it would lose the war if it could not produce enough armaments. Any person who tried to stop him accomplishing this great task was, in Stalins eyes, a traitor.
	Why Stalin introduced the purges #4PersecutionComplex?	4. Persecution complex Some writers, including British writer C. P. Snow, believe Stalin was suffering from a persecution complex - that he feared everyone was plotting against him. The murder of Kirov is an example of this.
	What was the murder of Kirov?	Stalin decided that his popular Politburo colleague, Kirov, was a possible rival. Kirov, a leading communist, spoke at the Seventeenth Party Congress in 1934. He criticised Stalin's policy on industrialisation and insisted that it should be slowed down. Kirovs speech was warmly applauded and there was even talk of him replacing Stalin as leader. He was murdered, probably on Stalins orders. Stalin claimed the murder was part of a plot against him and the Party. The secret police arrested thousands of Kirovs supporters.
	What was the Cheka?	The secret police Lenin set up his own secret police known as the Cheka, which was renamed the OGPU in 1922. In 1934, its name was changed again - to the NKVD.
	How were the purges carried out?	The purges were implemented by the secret police and many of those purged ended up in labour camps known as Gulags.
	How did Stalin increase the power of the secret police?	Stalin expanded the secret police and gave it greatly increased powers with the 'decree against terrorist acts, issued after Kirov's murder. This meant they could arrest people without charge or trial and execute them on the spot.
	What was the nickname of the secret police?	The secret police were sent out at night and were nicknamed the 'black ravens', because they drove round in black cars. They liked to call in the early hours of the morning.
	How was the secret police assisted?	They were assisted by an army of informers. Even children were encouraged to inform on their parents, neighbours and school friends. Informing on others was a way of showing your loyalty, of settling old scores and of getting someone else's more senior job or position.
	In what way was the secret police used by Stalin?	The NKVD was used by Stalin to hunt down and destroy his opponents and terrorise ordinary people into obedience. People found guilty of opposition or disobedience were sentenced to death, exile or hard labour. The most notorious head of the secret police was Yezhov who was himself purged in 1938.
	Where were victims of the purges sent?	The labour camps Victims of the purges were sent to the gulags, which were set up In Siberia and the Arctic north. They were run by the secret police. Millions of people were imprisoned and forced to do hard manual work on construction and mining projects.
	What were the labour camps like?	About thirteen million died from cold, hunger and ill-treatment. Living conditions were appalling and food supplies totally inadequate. In 1928, there were around 30,000 prisoners in the labour camps. By 1938, it was around seven million.
	What were the show trials?	The show trials began in 1936. In that year, Stalin began purging the Communist Party of anyone who might oppose him, especially l6kl Bolsheviks', such as Kamenev and Zinoviev. Aloiig with fourteen others, they were accused of organising Kirovs murder and plotting to assassinate Stalin. The accused were put on trial in full view of the world. They were forced to confess to a whole range of improbable crimes, including a plot to murder Lenin. The confessions were important because they appeared to show that Stalin was right to purge the Communist Party. Trotsky, now in exile, was accused of leading the plotters.
	Why did people in the show trials confessed to such crimes?	Such confessions did not help the accused, as they were executed after the trials. They confessed for a number of reasons: first, because they were physically and psychologically tortured by the secret police second, because their families were threatened with imprisonment or death.
	What was the human cost of the purges?	The purges did ensure total control under Stalin, with the removal of any potential rivals to his leadership. However, they had a devastating effect on the Soviet Union. The human cost was enormous. It is impossible to know how many were killed or imprisoned. However, in 1988 the KGB - the name for the secret police at that time - allowed some NKVD files to be examined.
	How did the purges affect the USSRs war effort	The USSR was seriously weakened with the loss of its senior ofificers in the army and navy. This almost led to defeat in 1941 when Hitlers armies invaded.
	How did the purges affect industry?	The purges undermined much of Stalin's earlier work on building up industry (see page 106). Able scientists, adminiscrators and engineers were arrested, executed or imprisoned, which affected the quality of what was being produced.
	How did the purges affect Russias people?	Every part of Russia was affected. No village, no home, not even Stalins own family could escape. His cousins and in-laws were victims of the Terror. Anyone could receive a knock on the door in the middle of the night and be dragged away by the secret police. No one felt secure. Some people took advantage to denounce neighbours or workmates and get their jobs. All trust disappeared. Eventually, the secret police had files on half the urban population in the Soviet Union.
	How did the purges affect family life?	Many were unfairly expelled from the Communist Party. This often had cruel consequences. Without the Party card, it was impossible to get a job. This punished the whole family. When both parents of one 13-year-old girl were arrested she was forced to live on the streets. In order to survive she had to tell the Young Pioneers that her parents were spies and deserved to be shot.
	What was Stalins view on the separatist groups growing amongst minorities in Russia?	Stalin was from Georgia, an area that for a long time wanted self-government and even independence. Unlike Lenin, however, Stalin had no sympathy with these national groups. In the 1930s, a policy of'Russification9 attempted to impose Russian culture on the USSR. Russian became compulsory in schools and key jobs went to Russians. Army recruits were sent away from their homelands and forced to mix with other ethnic groups. Many who opposed this were purged.
	What was the 'cult of personality'	One of the key features of any totalitarian state is to glorify the leader and turn them into an almost god-like being. This 'cult of personality' was developed by Stalin, using the skills of propaganda he had developed as editor of Pravda.
	How was propaganda used in the cult of Stalin?	Stalin's name and picture were everywhere. Streets and cities were named after him and poems and plays were written about him. Newspapers constantly carried stories of his wonderful achievements and they gave him nicknames such as 'Man of Steel', 'Shining Sun of Humanity' or Vozhd (the Boss). He created the image of himself as a caring leader whose genius had saved the Soviet Union from its enemies and made it the envy of the world. Huge parades in Red Square in Moscow, films, statues and paintings all showed how fortunate the Soviet people were to have such a great leader.
	How where artists forced to make this kind of propaganda for the "cult of Stalin"	Artists, writers and film-makers were instructed to produce works in praise of Stalin and his achievements. Ordinary people were told that Stalin was the centre of all that was good and wise. He promised to reward those who were loyal to him with better housing and promotion at work. Party members, such as Avdienko in Source B, were forever praising his achievements.
	How did Stalin change history?	Stalin had to rewrite history to glorify his own part in the past, especially the Bolshevik Revolution, and remove that of enemies' such as Trotsky and other leading Bolsheviks. Photographs, such as the one on page 75, were doctored so that these people disappeared from Soviet history. In this way, images of Bukharin, Zinoviev and Kamenev were eventually removed from photographs. At the same time, new photographs and histories were created, emphasising Stalins role, especially his apparent close links with Lenin, who was still treated as a god in Soviet society. Stalin even encouraged the 'cult of Lenin but with himself close at hand. Photographs were faked to show Stalin close to Lenin (see Source C).
	Who was the widespread propaganda campaign directed particularly at?	This widespread propaganda campaign was directed particularly at children. Children were taught that Stalin was the 'Great Leader'.
	What was "social realism"?	Writers, artists, film-makers and even composers had to support the government by following the policy of social realism'. Music, art, poetry and plays had to be intelligible to the ordinary person and anything abstract was frowned upon. Great composers such as Shostakovich and Prokofiev were ordered to write only music that all could understand. This meant that many of the new artistic developments of the early twentieth century could not be reflected in Soviet culture.
	What affect did "social realism" have?	The result was that artists5 work had to deal with ordinary people, and had to show how communism was developing. Above all, it had to give simple, clear and optimistic messages. All aspects of culture would show the successes of communism and there had to be no doubt that Soviet Union was a happy, fulfilling country for its citizens.
	How did Stalin control religion?	There were three main religious groups that Stalin had to deal with - Russian Orthodox, Muslim and Jews- Religious groups posed a threat to the 'cult of Stalin' as they owed their allegiance to a different god. Stalin continued and extended the Bolshevik attack on religion: Christian leaders were imprisoned More than 60,000 places of worship were closed down .The 'League of the Godless smashed churches and burned religious pictures Mosques and Muslim schools were closed and pilgrimages to Mecca were banned. Islamic law was banned and women were encouraged to unveil Jewish schools, libraries and synagogues were closed down. The study of Hebrew was banned.
	What happened despite starlings acts to try and control religion?	However, despite these measures, it is thought thatin the 1937 census, about 50 million Soviet citizens said they had religious beliefs. Some churches were permitted to remain open in the late 1930s - and by allowing this, Stalin could say that the idea of 'freedom of conscience contained in the 1936 Constitution was being followed.
	What changes were made in education by Stalin?	In 1932 a rigid programme of- education was introduced. The Bolsheviks had introduced many new methods, which had not brought the progress they expected. Stalin returned to more traditional methods. Discipline was strict and examinations were brought back. There were even fees in some ol the advanced secondary schools. Children were taught that Stalin was the 'Great Leader'. They learnt Stalin's version of history. He even had a new book, A Short History of the USSR , written for school students, which showed him playing a more important role in the revolution. The teaching of communist ideology became compulsory in schools and, in addition,Stalin chose the subjects and information that children should learn.
	How did Stalin change education in order to improve the future workforce?	Education changed to focus on the technical and scientific skills needed by Soviet workers who were involved in the Five-Year Plans Stalin did not wish to rely too long on foreign technicians. By 1939, 94 per cent of urban dwellers and 86 per cent of the rural population were able to read and write. Furthermore, the Soviet Union was producing a high number of engineers, teachers, doctors and scientists.
	How did Stalin control children outside of school?	Outside school, Stalin also wanted some control over the young. Children joined political youth groups, which trained them in socialism and communism. The youth groups were taught activities such as sports, camping and model making, and there were different groups for different ages: • 8 to 10-year-olds joined the Octobrists • 10 to 16-year-olds joined the Young Pioneers • 16 to 28-year-olds joined the Komsomol.
	What was Stalin's new constitution when was introduced and what was its aim?	1936 Stalin introduced a new constitution. This was to convince Soviet citizens and the outside world that the USSR was a 'free society. In fact, it merely served to confirm Stalin's dictatorship.
	What was the structure of the Communist government?	The USSR was now composed of eleven socialist republics. The old Congress of the Soviets of the USSR became the Supreme Soviet or parliament of the USSR, with two chambers - the Soviet of the Union and the Soviet of Nationalities. The Communist Party kept close control of both the central government and the government of each republic. Stalin held the posts of Prime Minister in the government, General Secretary of the Party and Chairman of the Party's Politburo.
	What were the key features of the constitution?	Stalin described the constitution as 'the most democratic in the world. Its key features were: • Secret ballots • Elections to the Soviets every four years • Candidates for elections had to be approved by the Communist Party • Universal suffrage (voting rights) for all over the age of 18 • Guaranteed civil liberties such as: freedom of speech, press, assembly, religion and freedom from arbitrary arrest.
	How was the "freedom" described by Stalin in the Constitution not like reality?	However, the Constitution made it clear that the freedoms were to be exercised only with the approval of the Communist Party. Moreover, the Communist Party was the only party permitted to exist within the USSR. In elections, the Party candidate would be the only candidate and sometimes the results were announced before voting took place. Despite the claims made by Stalin about the new constitution, real power lay with the Communist Party. There were no elections for bodies in the Communist Party - members were chosen. The two most important parts were the Politburo and the Central Committees but these did not always meet on a regular basis and Stalin made ati decisions with his group of close advisers.

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