Final Exam Psychology 1200

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Psychological Disorders

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1. During various moments we feel, think, and act like an abnormal individual.
2. psychological disorders may bring unexplained physical symptoms, irrational fears, and suicidal thoughts.

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Defining Psychological Disorders:

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mental health workers view psychological disorders as persistently harmful thoughts, feelings, and actions that are deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional (Comer, 2004)

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Deviant, Distressful and Dysfunctional

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1. deviant behavior (going naked) in one culture may be considered normal, while in others it may lead to arrest.
2. deviant behavior must accompany distress
3. if a behavior is dysfunctional it s clearly a disorder.

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Understanding psychological disorders

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* ancient treatments of psychological disorders. Very inhumane.
Ex)bore holes in skull to release demons, exorcism, beatings

* the medical model
* philippe pinel (1745-182) insisted that madness was not due to demonic possession, but an ailment of the mind

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Medical Model

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1. etiology: focusing on what causes the disorder and how it develops
2. diagnosis: the symptoms that identify the disorder
3. treatment: how to treat the disorders in psychiatric hospitals
4. prognosis: what happens after treatment or with treatment

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The biopsychosocial approach

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Biological, Psychological and Social influences can aid in a psychological disorder

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What biological influences are apart of the biopsychosocial approach?

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evolution

individual genes

brain structure and chemistry

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What psychological influences are apart of the biopsychosocial approach?

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stress
trauma
learned helplessness
mood-related perception and memories

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What social influences are apart of the biopsychosocial approach?

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roles
expectations
definitions of normality and disorder

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Classifying Psychological Disorders

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* the american psychiatric association rendered a diagnostic and statistical manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) to describe psychological disorders
* the most recent edition, DSM-IV-TR (Text revision, 2000) describes 400 psychological disorders compared to 60 in the 1950s

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Mulitaxial Classification

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A classification symbol of psychological disorders composed of 5 axis's

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Axis 1 of multiaxial Classification

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Is a clinical syndrome (cognitive, anxiety, mood disorder,) present?

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Axis 2 of mutiaxial classification

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is a personality disorder or mental retardation present?

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Axis 3 of multiaxial classification

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Is a General medical condition (diabetes, hypertension or arthritis, etc) also present?

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Axis 4 of multiaxial classification

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are psychosocial or environmental problems (school, or housing issues) also present?

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Axis 5 of multiaxial classification

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what is the global assessment of the persons functioning?

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Goals of DSM

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1. descirbe (400) disorders
2. determine how prevalent the disorder is
3. disorders outlined by DSM-IV are reliable
4. others criticize DSM-IV for "putting any kind of behavior within compass of psychiatry"

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Labeling Psychological Disorders

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1. critics of the DSM-IV argue that labels may stigmatize individuals
2. labels may be helpful for health care professionals when communicating with one another and establishing therapy
3. "insanity" labely raise moral and ethical questions about how society should treat people who have disorders and have committed crimes

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Focuses in Social Psychology

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* social psychology scientifically studies how we think about, influence and relate to one another
* social thinking: involves thinking about others, especially when they do things that are unexpected

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Attribution theory

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* suggests that we have the tendency to give casual explanations for someones behavior, often by crediting either the situation or the persons disposition
* dispositional attribution: trying to explain behavior based on personality or characteristics. Runs red light, terrible driver
* situational attribution: runs red light, maybe in a hurry.

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Fundamental Attribution Error

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* overestimate the influene of personality and underesstimate the influence of the situation
* Napolitan and Geothals (1979)
*
* participants split into two groups. Group 1: informed Group 2: uninformed. They were placed in a room with someone extremely friendly or unfriendly. After exposure to this person they were asked to rate the personality. Despite the informed group knowing how the person would behave they still attributed their behavior to their personality

* when it comes to thinking about ourselves or people we know well, we focus of the situation
*
* except for when we do something good

* we all commit the fundamental attribution error, and we are mot likely to do it while trying to explain a strangers bad behavior

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attitude:

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a belief and feeling that predisposes a person to respnd in a particular way to objects, other people and events

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Attitudes affect Actions

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* two forms of persuasion
* peripheral route persuasion: does not involve systematic thinking
* central route persuasion: offers evidence and arguments that intend to activate favorable thoughts

* Attitudes predict our behaviors imperfectly

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Actions can Affect Attitudes

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* not only do people stand for what they believe in (Attitude), they start believing in what they stand
* cooperative actions can lead to mutual liking (beliefs), which lead to further positive actions
* The Foot-in-the-door phenomenon
*
* those who comply with a small request will be more likely to comply with a larger request
* Korean war: Got foot in door by getting people to comply with small tasks and then moved on to larger demands

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Role Playing Affects Attitudes

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* Zimbardo Study: participants were split into two groups, "Prison Guards" and "Prisoners". The participants who were assigned to be prison guards let the power get to them and started treating the prisoners so terribly that the study had to be ended. When you are assigned a role, it can change your attitude.

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Why do actions affect attitudes?

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* cognitive dissonance-when our attitudes and actions are opposed, we experience tension
*
* the less coerced, and more responsible we feel for a troubling action, the more cognitive dissonance we feel
* the more dissonance we feel, the more motivated we are to reduce dissonance

* To relieve tension, Festinger (1957) suggests we change our attitudes to reflect our actions

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Social Influence:

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the greatest contribution of social psychology is its study of attitudes, beliefs, decisions, and actions and the way they are molded by social influence

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Group Influence:

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How do groups affect our behavior? social psychologists study various groups:

1. one person affecting another
2. families
3. teams
4. commitees

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Individual Behavior in the Presence of others

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* social facilitation:
* refers to improved performance on tasks in the presence of others
* Triplett (1989) noticed cyclists race times were faster when they competed against others that when they just raced against the clock

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Social Loafing:

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the tendency of an individual in a group to exert less effort toward attaining a common goal than when tested individually

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Deindividuaiton

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* the loss of self-awareness and self restraint in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity
* mob behavior.

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social influence

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The greatest contribution of social psychology
is its study of attitudes, beliefs, decisions, and
actions and the way they are molded by
social influence.

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Conformity:

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Adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to
coincide with a group standard (Chartrand & Bargh,
1999).
Likely to happen when we are unsure about our judgments

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Suggestibility

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a subtle type of conformity,
adjusting our behavior or thinking toward some
group standard.

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Conditions that Strengthen
Conformity

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1. One is made to feel incompetent or insecure.
2. The group has at least three people.
3. The group is unanimous.
4. One admires the group’s status and
attractiveness.
5. One has no prior commitment to a response.
6. The group observes one’s behavior.
7. One’s culture strongly encourages respect for
a social standard.

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Normative Social Influence:

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Influence resulting
from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid
rejection.

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Informational Social Influence:

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The group may
provide valuable information, but stubborn
people will never listen to others.

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Obedience

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People comply to social pressures. How would they respond to outright command?

Stanley Milgram designed a study that investigates the
effects of authority on obedience.

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Milgram triggers controversy


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Use of deception and stress triggered ethical
debates

In his defense…
 After being debriefed, nearly all participants
expressed no regret in taking part in the experiment
 Experiments provoked little long-term stress

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Lessons from the Conformity and
Obedience Studies

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In both Asch's and Milgram's studies,
participants were pressured to choose
between following their standards and being
responsive to others.

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 Social facilitation:

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Refers to improved
performance on tasks in
the presence of others.

Triplett (1898) noticed
cyclists’ race times were
faster when they
competed against others
than when they just raced
against the clock.

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Group Polarization

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enhances a group’s prevailing attitudes through a discussion. If a group is like-minded, discussion strengthens its prevailing opinions and attitudes.

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Groupthink


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A mode of thinking that occurs when the
desire for harmony in a decision-making
group overrides the realistic appraisal of
alternatives.
 Overconfidence, conformity, self-justification,
and group polarization

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Power of Individuals

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The power of social influence is enormous, but so is the power of the individual.Non-violent fasts and appeals by Gandhi led to the independence of India from the British.

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Schizophrenia:

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* a group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and behaviors
* example of psychosis: where you are detached from reality

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positive symptoms:

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the presence of inappropriate behaviors

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negative symptoms:

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absence of appropriate behaviors. ex)being emotionless, catatonic state

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* disorganized thinking:

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thoughts are fragmented, strange, and distorted by dilusions

* word salad: sentences that make no sense
* may result from selective-attention difficulty

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* Disturbed perceptions

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* hallucinations-mostly auditory (hearing voices)

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* inappropriate emotions and actions
*

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* expressed emotions are often inappropriate or detached from reality
* motor behavior (rocking, rubbing arms, moving around)

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Onset and development

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* affects both men and women
* men are typically diagnosed around age 23, women at age 25
* children are not diagnosed

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* chronic schizophrenia:

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symptoms are slow to develop
* recovery is doubtful
* experience withdraw

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* Acute schizophrenia:

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symptoms develop rapidly after a highly stressful situation
* recovery is more probable
* more often have positive symptoms and will be more likely to respond to drug therapy

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flat affect:

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toneless, rigid,

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Brain Abnormalities

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dopamine hyperactivity
abnormal brain activity and anatomy
maternal virus during mid pregnancy

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* dopamine hyperactivity

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* excess receptors for dopamine (D4) may lead to intensified brain signals in those with schizophrenia
* drugs that block dopamine receptors often reduce symptoms. drugs that increase dopamine levels can intensify them

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* abnormal brain activity and anatomy

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* some of those with chronic schizophrenia show abnormal activity in the frontal lobes
* hallucinations: hyperactiivty in the amygdala
* shrinkage in multiple brain areas

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Genetic Factors

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* those with immediate family members with schizophrenia are more likely to develop schizophrena
*
* evidence provided by twin studies and adoption studies

* researchers are searching fro genes that may indicate a predisposition for developing schizophrenia
* genes that influence myelin production and dopamine levels
* epigeneticgenes: genes that can be turned on by environmental factors

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* possible early warning signs

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* a mother whose schizophrenia was severe and long-lasting
* birth complications (oxygen deprivation, low birthweight)
* separation from parents
* short attention span and poor muscle coordination
* disruptive or withdrawn behavior
* emotional unpredictability
* poor peer relations and solo play

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psychotherapy:

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emotionally charged, confiding interaction between therapist and patient

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biomedical therapy:

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treats psychological disorders using drugs or other procedures that act on the patients nervous system

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an eclectic approach:

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uses various forms of healing techniques depending upon a clients unique problems

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Psychoanalysis: aims

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the first psychotherapy to emerge was psychoanalysis, developed by Sigmund Freud
* when energy devoted to id-ego-superego conflicts is released, the patients anxiety lessens
* bring repressed feelings into conscious awareness where the patient can deal with them

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Psychoanalysis: Methods

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* Freud developed the method of free association to unravel the unconscious mind and its conflicts
*
* the patient lies on a couch and speaks whatever comes to his or her mind with therapist behind them where they cannot be seen
* therapist takes notes and interprets

* Resistance: becomes important in the analysis of conflict-driven anxiety
*
* interpretation
* eventually the patient opens up and reveals his or her innermost private thoughts, developing positive or negative feelings (transference) towards the therapist

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Psychoanalysis: Criticisms

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* psychoanalysis is hard to refute because it cannot be proven or dis proven
* psychoanalysis takes a long time and is very expensive

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Psychodynamic therapy:

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influenced by Freud, in a face-to-face setting, psychodynamic therapists understand symptoms and themes across important relationships in a patients life

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interpersonal psychotherapy,

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a variation of psychodynamic therapy, is effective in treating depression. it focuses on symptom relief here and now, rather than releasing past hurts and offering interpretations

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Humanistic Therapies

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* aim to boost self fulfillment by helping people grow in self-awareness and self-acceptance
*
* focus on promoting growth, not curing an illness
* conscious is more important than the unconscious, and the present is more important than the past

* Therapist engages in active listening and echoes, restates, and clarifies the patients thinking, acknowledging expressed feelings

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Client Centered Therapy

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* developed by Carl Rogers
* The therapist listens to the needs of the patient in an accepting and non-judgemental way, addressing problems in a productive way and building his of her self-esteem
* show genuineness, acceptance and empathy as a therapist

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Behavior therapy

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* therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors
* to treat phobias of sexual disorders, behavior therapists do not delve deeply below the surface looking for inner causes

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Classical Conditioning Techniques

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* counter conditioning is a procedure that conditions new responses to stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors
* it is based on classical conditioning and includes exposure therapy and aversive conditioning

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Exposure therapy:

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expose patients to things they fear and avoid. Through repeated

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systematic desensitization:

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a type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant, relaxed dstate with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli commonly used to treat phobias

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Aversive Conditioning:

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a type of counter conditioning that associates an unpleasant state with an unwanted behavior. With this technique, temporary conditioned aversion to alcohol has been reported

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Operant Conditioning:

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iperant conditioning precedures enable therapists to use bahavior modification, in which desired

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Cognitive therapy:

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teaches people adaptive ways of thinking and acting based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions

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* Reational-Emotional Behavior therapy
*

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* developed by albert ellis, this confrontational cognitive therapy vigourously challenges peoples illogical, self-defeating attitudes and assumptions
* Becks Therapy for depression
* beck believes that cognitions such as "I can never be happy" need to change in order for depressed patients to recover. this change is brought by gently questioning patients
* stress innoculation training
* teaching people to change their way of thinking during stressful situations

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Cognitive-Behavioral therapy

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* cognitive therapists often combine the reversal of self-defeated thinking with modifying behavior
* aims
*
* make people aware of their own negative irrational thinking
* replace it with new ways of thinking
* practice this positive thinking in everyday settings

* behavior change is usually assessed first, followed by therapy sessions that address cognitive change