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68 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Three general kinds of functional areas
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•Sensoryareas
•Associationareas •Motorareas |
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Sensory areas & Sensory association areas |
•There is a sensory area for each of the major senses.
- Each Primary sensory cortex hasan association area that processes sensory information |
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Multimodal association areas |
•Receive and integrate input from multiple regions of the cerebral cortex
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Motor cortex |
•Plansand initiates voluntary motor functions |
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Information processing |
•Sensory information received by primarysensory cortex
•Information relayed to sensoryassociation area •Multimodal association areas receiveinput in parallel from sensory areas •Motor plan enacted |
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Sensory areas |
•Cortical areas involved in consciousawareness of sensation •Locatedin Parietallobes, Temporallobes, Occipitallobes •Distinct regions of each lobe interpreteach of the major senses |
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Sensory Areas - Primary Somatosensory cortex |
•Located along the postcentral gyrus •Involved with conscious awareness ofgeneral somaticsenses •Spatial discrimination •Preciselylocates a stimulus •Certainregions are more adept at distinguishing precise stimuli |
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Sensory Areas - Primary Somatosensory cortex (2) |
•Projection is contralateral - Cerebralhemispheres receivesensory input from the opposite side of the body •Sensory homunculus - Abody map of the sensory cortex |
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Sensory Areas - Somatosensory Association Cortex |
•Lies posterior to the primary somatosensorycortex •Integrates different sensory inputs - Touch, Pressure •Draws upon stored memories of pastsensory experiences - Youare able to recognize keys or coins in your pocket without looking at them |
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Sensory Areas - Visual Areas |
•Primary visual cortex - Locatedis deep within the calcarinesulcus•Onmedial part of the occipital lobe •Largestof all sensory areas - Receivesvisual information that originates on the retina - Exhibitscontralateral function •Firstof a series of areas processing visual input |
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Visual association area |
•Surroundsthe primary visual area •Continuesthe processing of visual information - Analyzescolor, form, and movement•Complexvisual processing extends into - temporaland parietal lobes |
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Sensory Areas - Auditory Areas |
Primary auditory cortex •Function : Consciousawareness of sound•Soundwaves excite receptors in the inner ear•Impulsestransmitted to primary auditory cortex •Location: Superioredge of the temporal lobe |
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Auditory association area |
•Liesposterior to the primary auditory cortex•Permitsevaluation of different sounds •Processesauditory stimuli serially and in parallel Posterolateral - “where” pathway Anterolateral - “what”pathway •Liesin the center of Wernicke’sarea - Involvedin recognizing and understanding speech |
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Sensory Areas - Vestibular Cortex |
•Responsible for - Consciousawareness of sense of balance•Located in the posterior part of the insula - Deepto the lateral sulcus |
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Sensory areas - Gustatory Cortex |
•Function - involvedin the conscious awareness of taste stimuli •Location - Onthe “roof”of the lateral sulcus |
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Sensory Areas - Olfactory nerves |
•Lies on the medialaspect ofthe cerebrum - Locatedin the piriformlobe •Olfactory nerves transmit impulses to theolfactory cortex -Providesconscious awareness of smells |
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Sensory Areas - Olfactory nerves (2) |
•Part of the rhinencephalon—“nosebrain”•Includes - The piriformlobe, olfactory tracts, andolfactory bulbs •Connects the brain to the limbicsystem - Explainswhy smells trigger emotions •Involved with consciously identifying andrecalling specific smells |
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Visceral Sensory Areas |
•Location - Withinthe lateral sulcus - Onthe insula lobe •Receives general sensory input - Pain, Pressure, Hunger |
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Motor Areas |
•Cortical areas controlling motor function - Premotorcortex, Primarymotor cortex, Frontaleye field, Broca’sarea •All localized in posterior frontal lobe |
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Motor Areas - Frontal eye field |
Frontal eye field •Lies anterior to the premotorcortex •Controls voluntary movement of the eyes - Especiallywhen moving eyes to follow a moving target |
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Motor Areas - Brocas Area |
Brocas area •Located in left cerebral hemisphere •Manages speech production•Connected to language comprehension areas in posterior association area•A corresponding region in the rightcerebral hemisphere controls emotional overtones to spoken words |
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Multimodel Association Models |
•Large areas of the cerebral cortex
•Receive sensory input from multiplesensory modalities & Sensoryassociation areas. •Make associations between kinds ofsensory information |
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Multimodel Association Modelas (2) |
Three multimodal association areas
•Posterior association area •Anterior association area •Limbic association area |
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Posterior Association Area |
• Located: at interface of visual, auditory, andsomatosensory association areas
•Integrates sensory information into unifiedperception •Allows awareness of spatial location of body • “Body sense” •Related to language comprehension and speech |
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Posterior Association Area (2) |
Dorsal stream : Extends to the postcentral gyrus •Perceives information about spatialrelationships•“Where” pathway—location ofobjects•
Ventral stream : Passes information into inferior part ofthe temporal lobe. Responsible for recognizing objects, words, andfaces• “What” pathway—identifiesobjects |
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Posterior Association Area (3)
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Multiple language areas in left cerebralcortex• Wernicke’s area functions in•
Speechcomprehension •Coordinationof auditory and visual aspects of language. Initiation ofword articulation • Recognitionof sound sequences |
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Auditory Pathways |
• Auditory stimuli processed in two streams• From auditory association area throughmultimodal association areas• Parietal lobeand lateral part of frontal lobe—evaluate location of sound stimulus• “Where” pathway
• Anteriorregion of temporal lobe and inferior region of frontal lobe—process soundidentification• “What” pathway |
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Posterior Association Area (4) |
Areas in right cerebral hemisphere act in
-Creative interpretation of words -Emotional overtones of speech |
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Anterior Association Area (1) |
located: The prefrontal cortex (frontal lobe)• Receives information from posterior associationarea
•Integrates information with past experience •Initiates and plans motor movements •Has links to the limbic system Functions include: More complex functions include all aspects of•Thinking, perceiving, intentionally remembering•Processing abstract ideas, reasoning, judgment•Impulse control, mental flexibility, socialskills•Humor, empathy, conscience |
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Anterior Association Area (2) |
Functional neuroimaging techniques
Reveal functions of specific parts of theprefrontal cortex •Anterior pole of frontal cortex •Active in solving the most complex problems •More complex problems, emotions, cognition atanterior part of frontal lobe Additional functions •Stores information for less than 30 seconds•Three working memory areas•Visualworking memory•Auditoryworking memory•Executivearea |
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Limbic Association Areas |
Located on medial side of frontal lobe
•Involved with memory and emotions•Integrates sensory and motor behaviors •Aids in the formation of memory •Processes emotions |
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Lateralization of cortical functioning |
The two hemispheres control opposite sides ofthe body
•Contralateral = opposite side •Hemispheres are specialized for differentcognitive functions Left cerebral hemisphere—control over •Language abilities, math, and logic •Right cerebral hemisphere—involved with•Visual-spatial skills •Reading facial expressions •Intuition, emotion, artistic and musical skills |
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Cerebral white matter |
Different areas of the cerebral cortex • Communicate with each other
•Communicate with the brain stem and spinal cord• Fibers communicating are •Usually myelinated and bundled into tracts Types of tracts •Commissures—composed ofcommissural fibers•Allowscommunication between cerebral hemispheres• Corpuscallosum—the largest commissure •Association fibers •Connectdifferent parts of the same hemisphere•Parts of Wernike’s and Broca’s areas are connected by association fibers Types of tracts (continued) •Projection fibers—runvertically •Descend fromthe cerebral cortex •Ascend to thecortex from lower regionsCorticospinal tracts begin with pyramidal cells |
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Projection Tracts |
Internal capsule—projectionfibers form a compact bundle• Passes between the thalamus and basal nuclei
•Corona radiata—superior tothe internal capsule•Fibers run to and from the cerebral cortex |
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Deep gray matter of cerebrum |
Consists of
Basal nuclei (basal ganglia)•Involved inmotor control•Basal forebrain nuclei•Associatedwith memory• Claustrum - A nucleus ofunknown function Amygdaloid body •Located in cerebrum but is considered part ofthe of the limbic system |
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Basal Nuclei
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•A group of nuclei deep within the cerebralwhite matter•Formed from
Caudate nucleus—arches overthalamus•Putamen •Globus pallidus Evidence shows that they•Start, stop, and regulate intensity of voluntarymovements• Select appropriate muscles for a task andinhibit others. In some way estimate the passage of time |
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Basal Ganglia
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•Complex neural calculators•Cooperate with the cerebral cortex incontrolling movement•Receive input from many cortical areas•Substantia nigra alsoinfluences basal ganglia
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Basal Forebrain Nuclei
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Structures composing basal forebrain nuclei•Septum
•Diagonal band of Broca •Horizontal band of Broca •Basal nucleus of Meynert
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Basal Forebrain Nuclei (2) |
Basal Forebrain Nuclei
Part of cholinergic system • That is, they synthesize and release acetylcholine •Location Anterior and dorsal to hypothalamus •Functions related to •Arousal •Learning •Memory •Motor control •Degeneration of basal forebrain nuclei •Associated with Alzheimer’s disease |
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Functional Brain Systems: networks of neurons that function together |
Networks of neurons functioning together Limbic system
Spread widelyin the forebrain The reticular formation Spans thebrain stem |
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Limbic System |
Location Medial aspect of cerebral hemispheres Also within the diencephalon Composed of Septal nuclei, cingulate gyrus, and hippocampalformation•Part of the amygdaloid body Fornix and other tracts link the limbic system together |
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Limbic System (2) |
The “emotional brain”
Cingulate gyrus : Allows us toshift between thoughts interpretspain as unpleasant - Hippocampal formation • Hippocampus and the parahippocampal gyrus |
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Reticular Formation |
Runs through the central core of the medulla,pons, and midbrain
•Forms three columns Midline raphe nuclei Medial nuclear group Lateral nuclear group |
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Reticular Formation (2) |
Widespread connections
•Ideal for arousal of the brain as a whole Reticular activating system (RAS) Maintains consciousness and alertness Functions in sleep and arousal from sleep Malfunctions in people with narcolepsy |
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Protection of Brain |
The brain is protected from injury by
The skull Meninges Cerebrospinal fluid Blood brain barrier |
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Meninges |
Functions of meninges
Cover and protect the CNS Enclose and protect the vessels that supply theCNS Contain the cerebrospinal fluid Between piaand arachnoid maters |
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Dura Mater |
Strongest of the meninges
Composed of two layers•Periosteal layer• Meningeal layer•Two layersare fused except to enclose the dural sinuses Largest sinus - the superior sagittal sinus Dura mater extendsinward to subdivide the cranial cavity |
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Arachnoid Mater |
Location beneath the dura materArachnoid villi Project through the dura mater Allow CSF to pass into the dural blood sinuses |
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Pia Mater |
- Delicate connective tissue
- Clings tightly to the surface of the brain - Follows all convolutions of the cortex |
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Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) |
Formed in choroid plexuses in the brainventricles
Choroid plexus is• -Located inall four ventricles -Composed of ependymalcells and capillaries Arises from blood -500 ml produced per day -Only 100–160 mlpresent at any one time |
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Blood brain Barrier |
Prevents most blood borne toxins from enteringthe brain
•Impermeable capillaries Not an absolute barrier •Nutrients such as oxygen pass through •Allows passage of alcohol, nicotine, andanesthetics |
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Spinal Cord |
Functions of
Spinal nerves attach to it •Provides two-way conduction pathway •Major center for reflexes •Location Runs through the vertebral canal •Extends from the foramen magnum to the level ofthe vertebra L1 or L2 |
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Spinal Cord (2) |
Conus medullaris
•The inferior end of the spinal cord Filum terminale •Long filament of connective tissue •Attaches to the coccyx inferiorly• Cervical and lumbarenlargements Where nerves for upper and lower limbs arise Cauda equina •Collection of spinal nerve roots |
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Spinal Cord Segments |
Indicate the region of the spinal cord fromwhich spinal nerves emerge
•Designated by the spinal nerve that issues fromit •T1is the region where the first thoracic nerve emerges |
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Spinal Cord; Two deep grooves |
Two deep grooves run the length of the cord Posterior median sulcus
Anterior median fissure |
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White matter of the Spinal Cord |
Outer region of the spinal cord Composed of myelinated and nonmyelinated axons
- Allow communication between spinal cord andbrain Fibers classified by type Ascending fibers Descending fibers Commissural fibers |
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Gray Matter of the Spinal cord |
Shaped like the letter “H”
•Gray commissure—contains thecentral canal Dorsal horns Consist of interneurons Ventral and lateral horns Contain cell bodies of motor neurons Regions of Gray Matter Gray commissure Dorsal horns Ventral horns Lateral horns |
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Gray Matter divided by somatic and visceral regions |
Divided according to somatic and visceralregions
SS—somaticsensory VS—visceralsensory VM—visceralmotor SM—somatic motor |
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Protection of Spinal Cord |
Protected by vertebrae, meninges, and CSF Meninges
Dura mater—a singlelayer surrounding spinal cord Arachnoidmater—lies deep to the dura mater Pia mater—innermostlayer Delicatelayer of connective tissue Extends tothe coccyx Denticulateligaments—lateral extensions of pia mater |
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Cerebrospinal Fluid in Spinal Cord |
Fills the hollow cavities of the brain andspinal cord
Provides a liquid cushion for the spinal cordand brain •Other functions Nourishes brain and spinal cord•Removes wastes•Carries chemical signals between parts of theCNS |
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Sensory and Motor pathways in the CNS |
Multineuron pathways connect brainand body periphery
•Pathways are composed of tracts Ascending pathways—carryinformation to more rostral areas of the CNS •Descending pathways—carryinformation to more caudal regions of the CNS |
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Ascending Pathways |
Conduct general somatic sensory impulses•Chains of neurons composed of
First-, second-, and third-order neurons Four main ascending pathways Dorsal column pathway Spinothalamic pathway Posterior spinocerebellar pathway Anterior spinocerebellar pathway |
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Descending Pathways |
Most motor pathways
Decussate at some point along their course•Consist of a chain of two or three neurons•Exhibit somatotopy •Tractsarranged according to the body region they supply •All pathways are paired •One of each on each side of the body |
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Descending Pathways (2) |
Deliver motor instructions from the brainto the spinal cord
•Divided into two groups •Pyramidal (corticospinal) tracts •Other motor pathways •Tectospinaltracts •Vestibulospinaltract •Rubrospinaltract •Reticulospinaltract |
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Disorders of the central nervous system: Spinal Cord Damage |
Spinal cord damage•
Paralysis—loss of motorfunction •Parasthesia—loss ofsensation •Paraplegia—injury to thespinal cord is between T1 and L2 •Paralysis ofthe lower limbs •Quadriplegia—injury to thespinal cord in the cervical region• Paralysis ofall four limbs |
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Disorders of the central nervous system: Brain Damage |
Brain dysfunction
•Degenerative brain diseases• Cerebrovascularaccident (stroke) •Blockage orinterruption of blood flow to a brain region• Alzheimer’s disease •Progressivedegenerative disease leading to dementias |
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Disorders of the central nervous system: Congenital malformations |
Congenital malformations
•Hydrocephalus - Neural tube defects •Anencephaly—cerebrum andcerebellum are absent •spina bifida—absence ofvertebral lamina Cerebral palsy—voluntarymuscles are poorly controlled •Results fromdamage to the motor cortex |
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Postnatal changes in the brain |
Brain structures complete development atdifferent times
Critical periods in learning Language Some development occurs into early 20s Decline with age attributed to changes In neuralcircuitry Amount of neurotransmittersbeing released |
