Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
94 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
habitats
|
- freshwater
- marine - terrestrial |
|
|
freshwater
|
- show adaptations that reduce water intake and conserve solutes
|
|
|
aquatic biome
|
- account for largest part of biosphere in terms of area
- show less latitudinal variation than terrestrial biomes |
|
|
marine biomes
|
- have salt concentrations of about 3%
- largest made of oceans which cover about 75% of Earth's surface - have enormous impact on biosphere - full strength sea water is approximately the same everywhere - salt water is 34 - 38 g/kg and is almost 1000 mOsm - salinity of a body of water = #g dissolved inorganic matter/kg of water |
|
|
marine invertebrates
|
- regulate ions specifically
- can alter specific ions in intracellular space - approximately isosmotic with seawater - bodies differ from sea water in ionic composition - mostly inorganic ions - exhibit ionic regulation but little or no osmotic regulation - relatively permeable to ions and water - ingest saltwater and actively take up ions from seawater - urine is isosmotic to blood but alter ionic composition |
|
|
blood plasma and intracellular fluid of marine invertebrates
|
- blood plasma mostly composed of inorganic ions (Na+, Cl-)
- intracellular fluid composed of organic solutes and inorganic ions (K+, Na+, Cl-) - osmotic pressure of seawater and body fluids is about 1000 mOsm - tend not to gain or lose water by osmosis - don't face problem of osmotic regulation |
|
|
marine vertebrates
|
- have organic solutes and inorganic ions (Na+, Cl-) in their blood plasma
- have organic solutes and inorganic ions (K+, Na+, Cl-) in their intracellular fluid - osmotic pressure of seawater and body fluids is about 1000 mOsm |
|
|
hagfish
|
- jawless primitive vertebrates
- only vertebrates that are approximately isosmotic with seawater - blood solutes are mainly NaCl - exhibit ionic regulation but little or no osmotic regulation - slime coat - similar to marine invertebrates - same blood plasma and intracellular fluid characteristics of marine invertebrates |
|
|
osmoregulation in salt water
|
- marine fish hypotonic to ocean
- lose water by osmosis - gain electrolytes by diffusion - drink water but only useful if one gets more water from it than it takes to eliminate salt - reduced amount of urine - excrete electrolytes by active transport |
|
|
sharks, skates, and rays
|
- inorganic ions are hyposmotic to salt water
- internal salt concentration much less than seawater - osmotic pressure of blood is slightly higher than seawater - experience small osmotic influx of water - don't drink sea water - hypertonic secretion from rectal gland - gills relatively impermeable to urea and can be reabsorbed from urine |
|
|
TMAO and urea
|
- urea is protein denaturing agent
- TMAO counter effects of urea = urea protecting agent - sharks need both to osmoregulate and counter effect - increase [] of urea in body fluids = reduce loss of water and salts - increase [] TMAO(trimethylamine oxide) = protects proteins against urea |
|
|
pyruvate kinase
|
- when exposed to increasing [urea] Michaelis constant increased
- when exposed to increasing [TMAO] Michaelis constant decreased - affinity decreases as Michaelis constant increases |
|
|
rectal gland
|
- concentrates salt ions in urine before urin is eliminated via cloaca
- particularly Na+ and Cl- |
|
|
rectal gland pumps
|
- allow rectal gland to concentrate ions in urine
- Na+, K+ ATPase pump develop energy to be used by other pumps - K+ transporter and Na+, K+, 2Cl- cotransporter use energy from ATPase pump = secondary active transport |
|
|
water- salt relations in marine shark
|
- hyperosmotic but hypoionic to ambient water
- roles of gills in salt excretion are uncertain - salts and water in food but generally don't drink - water gain by osmosis across gills - salt gain by diffusion across gills - modest amounts of urine, modestly hyposmotic to plasma, rich in Mg2+ and SO2- - rectal gland secretions rich in NaCl, plus salts and water in feces |
|
|
marine teleost
|
- marine bony fishes
- hyposmotic to sea water - lose water by osmosis and gain salt by both diffusion and from food they eat - balance water loss by drinking seawater - actively pump salt across the gills - kidneys remove Mg and SO4 - use same pumps as sharks |
|
|
salt water
|
- may not provide water when consumed
- dehydrates - maximum [Cl-] that kidney of many animals can produce is lower than [Cl-] in seawater - must use all water in seawater to excrete Cl- - use water from other body reserves to excrete Cl- |
|
|
water-salt relations in freshwater and marine teleost
|
- hyposmotic to ambient water
- salts and water in seawater ingested = source of net water gain - salts and water in food - active extrusion of Cl- active or passive outflux of Na+ through gills - small amounts of urine, nearly isosmotic to plasma, rich in Mg and SO4 - salts and water in feces - salt gain by diffusion - water loss by osmosis through gills - more water needed to overcome salt concentration - actively pump |
|
|
mitochondrial rich cell
|
- marine teleost fish
- dense with mitochondria - extensive intracellular tubular system - composed of branching tubules, continuous with basal and later portions of cell membrane - mostly interconnected in intact cells - chloride rich cell - work continuously - allows for extra-renal salt excretion |
|
|
epithelial NaCl secretion
|
- Na+/K+ ATPase transporter creates an electrochemical gradient
- NKCC transporter uses indirect/secondary active transport to move K+, Na+, and 2 Cl- from blood into salt gland - K+ moves out the salt cell and back into blood through a K+ gated channel = Ca++ activated - Cl- moves into water through a Cl- gated channel = Ca++ activated located in apical membrane - Na+ then travels between the cells into water |
|
|
sea birds
|
- drinks sea water
- salt glands remove excess sodium chloride from blood-hypertonic nasal secretions - aid weakly hypertonic urine - chloride glands - excrete excess salt through nasal salt gland - counter current exchange mechanism = blood flows counter to flow of salt secretion |
|
|
salt glands in birds
|
- exit by way of nostrils
- each gland consists of many longitudinal lobes that each contain great many branchings - radially arranged secretory tubules that discharge into central canal - each tubule is lined by transport epithelium surrounded by capillaries and drains into central duct - secretory cells actively transport salt from blood into tubules - counter current enhances salt transfer from blood to lumen of tubule |
|
|
evolution of salt glands
|
- turtles = lachrymal (behind eye)
- crocodilians = lingual (soft tissue of tongue) - lizards = nasal (behind the nares or nostrils) - snakes = can be found on tip of snout in old world water snakes or under tongue in file and sea snakes |
|
|
salt glands of marine reptiles
|
- rid their bodies of excess salt
- hypertonic secretions - urine is isotonic to blood - blood hypotonic to seawater - empties into sea turtles' eyes = look as if they are "crying" when come ashore - drink sea water |
|
|
marine mammals
|
- strongly hypertonic urine
- blood hypotonic to seawater - don't drink sea water - breath air so don't expose respiratory surface to salt water - use kidneys to remove excess salt - lose water through respiratory surface when they breath |
|
|
brackish water
|
- fresh water and salt water mix
- intermediate salinity - changing concentrations in salt - leeching into water - rapidly changing environment - serve as estuaries for many fish species - salinity distribution shifts with tides and seasons |
|
|
categories of osmoregulators
|
- hyper isosmotic regulation
- hyper hypo osmotic regulation |
|
|
hyper isosmotic regulation
|
- keeps blood more concentrated than the environmental water at low environmental salinities
- allows blood osmotic pressure to match ambient blood osmotic pressure at higher salinities |
|
|
hyper hypo osmotic regulation
|
- blood more concentrated than environmental water at low salinities
- more dilute at high salinities - occurs in salmon eels and other migratory fish |
|
|
blue crabs
|
- osmotic regulators when not molting
- moves water into waters of various salinities in estuary - blood osmotic pressure remains almost constant |
|
|
blue crab molting process
|
- molting hormones are released
- causing hypodermis to detach from existing hard shell and a new soft shell to grow - rapidly absorbs water - suspending volume regulation water which causes its tissues to swell and split the old shell open - sheds its exoskeleton/shell |
|
|
molted blue crab
|
- newly molted crab pumps water into its tissues in order to inflate the shell to new size
- new shell will be roughly 1/3 larger than old shell - new shell reaches its full size within six hours after molting - salvaged inorganic salts are rapidly redeposited to help thicken and harden new shell |
|
|
euryhaline
|
- able to survive broad ranges of salinity
- osmoconformers - oysters and mussels - cells have dramatic power of cell volume regulation - osmoregulators - crustaceans tend to protect cells from exposure to low blood osmotic pressure |
|
|
anhydrobiosis
|
- same aquatic invertebrates living in temporary ponds
- can lose almost all their body water and survive in dormant state - anti-freeze accumulation = trehelose |
|
|
trehelose
|
- disaccharide
- often accumulates in animals entering a state of anhydrobiosis - prevents structures of macromolecules from permanently destabilizing - antifreeze |
|
|
migratory fish
|
- hyper/hypo osmotic regulators
- great osmoregulators - requires mechanisms of both hyper and hypo osmotic regulation - when they transition salt-to-fresh or fresh-to-salt they undergo changes in gill, kidney epithelium, intestinal structure/function - under control of prolactin, cortisol, other hormones - live in marine and freshwater environment - change their pumps |
|
|
gill proteins
|
- respond to transitions between freshwater and seawater
- abundance of each protein is expressed in per unit of gill tissue - NKCC = sodium/potassium 2 chloride cotransporter |
|
|
freshwater
|
- has salinity less than 0.5 g/kg
- worldwide average is 0.1 to 0.2 g/kg - uniform in terms of osmotic pressure 0.5 - 15 mOsm - ion concentration vary from location to location - blood and plasma have more salt than water - change urine concentration |
|
|
osmoregulation in fresh water
|
- freshwater fish are hypertonic to ocean
- gain water by osmosis - loose electrolytes by diffusion - don't drink water - lots of urine - add electrolytes by diet and active transport |
|
|
freshwater animals
|
- tend to gain water by osmosis
- lose major ions by diffusion - tend to be similar in their intracellular concentrations of inorganic ions |
|
|
protist - contractile vacuoles
|
- paramecium constantly takes in water by osmosis and hypotonic environment
- accumulate excess water from radial canals - periodically expel it through plasma membrane - water accumulate in and excrete out |
|
|
water - salt relations in freshwater animal
|
- antennal gland responsible for urine formation
- water gain by osmosis through gills - salt loss by diffusion through gills - active absorption of Na+ and Cl- - salt and water loss in feces - corpious dilute urine - salts and water in food |
|
|
ion exchange
|
- mediated by active Na+ and Cl- transport
- HCO3- pumped from blood comes from H20 and CO2 - Na+ and Cl- pumps play role in removal of metabolic waste and acid/base physiology - bicarbonate and protons exchanged for Cl- and Na+ - active transport mechanism |
|
|
2 types of cells in gill epithelium
|
- chloride cells
- pavement cells |
|
|
chloride cells
|
- mitochondria rich
- Cl- uptake probably occurs - Na+ uptake occurs - take up Ca++ - increase number of chloride cells to take up calcium decreases ability to take up oxygen |
|
|
pavement cells
|
- uptake Na+
- take up O++ |
|
|
cellular acclimation
|
- in gill epithelium
- soft water is exceptionally low in Ca++ - obtain most calcium from water - mitochondria rich cell/MRC cell/Cl- cell responsible |
|
|
freshwater animals
|
- constantly take in water from their hyposmotic environment and lose salts by diffusion
- excrete large amounts of dilute urine - salt lost by diffusion replaced by foods and uptake across gills |
|
|
terrestrial biomes
|
- named for major physical or climatic factors and for vegetation
- grade into each other, without sharp boundaries - ecotone = area of integration maybe wide or narrow - distribution, precipitation, temperature, plants - always disccating - mostly deserts around 30 - temperate rainforest around 60 - tundras around 90 |
|
|
tropical forest
|
- distribution in equatorial ans subequatorial regions
- rainfall relatively constant - temperature high year-round with little seasonal variation |
|
|
desert
|
- occur in bands near 30
- interior of continents - preciptiation is low and highly variable, generallly less than 30 cm per person - animalS have extreme adaptations to water stress - extreme abilities to acquire water, conserve water, tolerate dehydration |
|
|
savanna
|
- equatorial and subequatorial regions
- precipitation seasonal - temperature is warm year-round - more seasonally variable that tropics |
|
|
chaparral
|
- occurs in midlatitude coastal regions on several continents
- precipitation is highly seasonal with rainy winters and dry summers - summer temperature is hot, while fall, winter, and spring are cool |
|
|
grasslands
|
- usually interior of continents
- unable to maintain forest - found on many continents - precipitation highly seasonal - winters are cold and dry - summers are hot and wet |
|
|
coniferous forest
|
- taiga
- spans northern america and eurasis - largest terrestrial biome on earth - precipitation varies - some have periodic droughts and others are wet - winters are cold and long while summer maybe hot |
|
|
temperate broadleaf forest
|
- found at midlatitudes in northern hemisphere
- smaller ares in chile, south africa, australia, and new zealand - significant amounts of precipitation fall during all seasons as rain or snow - winters average 0, while summers are hot and humid |
|
|
tundra
|
- covers expansive areas of arctic
- alpine tundra exists on high mountaintops at all latitudes - precipitation is low in arctic and higher in alpine - winters are long and cold while summers are relatively cool |
|
|
land and water problems
|
- evaporation is important to understanding the relations of animals to atmospheric water in terrestrial environments
- partial pressure of water in air is the water vapor pressure - humidity informal term for water vapor pressure - water vapor diffuses from high to low |
|
|
evaporation
|
- occurs if water vapor pressure of aqueous solution exceeds that of surrounding air
- takes place at rate proportional to difference in vapor pressure |
|
|
low integumentary permeability to water
|
- key to reducing evaporative water loss on land
- combat water loss |
|
|
terrestrial animals
|
- protein rich food can be dehydrating
- air-dried foods contain some water - nitrogenous wastes processing requires water for lysis |
|
|
nitrogenous waste
|
- type depends on water need
- ammonia created by animals with lots of water - urea made by humans - uric acid uses little water and insoluble |
|
|
humidic animals
|
- restricted to humid water-rich environments
- earthworms, slugs, centipedes, most amphibians, most terrestrial crabs - high integumentary permeability |
|
|
xeric animals
|
- capable fo living in dry, water poor environments
- birds, non-avian reptiles, arachnids - low integumentary permeability - microscopically thin layers of lipids are responsible for low permeability |
|
|
mammals, birds, non-avian reptiles
|
- layers are lamellar complexes of lipids and keratin in outer most layer of epidermis
|
|
|
insects and arachnids
|
- long chain hydrocarbons and waxes contained in outer layer of exoskeleton
- as temperature of an insect gradually raised = water permeability increases after a certain temperature-transition temperature - temperature transition temperature from 25 - 55 |
|
|
lipid mediated protection
|
- two species genetically controlled genetic difference in lipid composition
- northern and southern population increase in rate of evaporative water loss as body weight increases - northern population increases for greater body weight |
|
|
frogs
|
- protective lipids
- used to protect frogs from water loss |
|
|
osmoregulation on land
|
- lose water by evaporation and urine
- lose electrolytes by urine - drink water - regulate urine production - add electrolytes by diet |
|
|
land animals manage water budgets
|
- by drinking and eating moist foods
- by using metabolic water - managing water loss - breakdown of lipids and carbohydrates produces water - breath out a lot of water because moist surfaces |
|
|
metabolic water
|
- water produced by catabolic processes
- processing of lipids and carbohydrates |
|
|
obligatory water loss of catabolism
|
- must take place for catabolism to occur
- has respiratory, urinary, and fecal components - matters most in animals that conserve water efficiently |
|
|
obligatory urinary water loss
|
- mandated by ingestion or catabolism of food
- protein catabolism usually as the highest - excretion of waste obligates water excretion |
|
|
obligatory respiratory water loss
|
- amount of water that is lost in order to obtain O2 for catabolism
- evaporation across respiratory surface |
|
|
temperature of exhaled air from nostrils
|
- respiratory water loss directly depends on rate of O2 consumption and amount of water lost per O2 consumed
- inhaled air initially warmed by body - cooled by countercurrent cooling before being exhaled - conserves water |
|
|
rate of water loss
|
- equal to rate of oxygen consumption times the water loss per unit of oxygen consumed
- mgH2O/hour = mLO2/hour x mgH20/mL O2 |
|
|
obligatory fecal water loss
|
- water loss in feces due to catabolism of ingested food
- ingested food usually contains performed water |
|
|
respiratory evaporative water loss
|
- depends directly on
- rate of oxygen consumption = metabolic rate - amount of water lost per unit of oxygen consumed - maybe reduced by countercurrenlty cooling in nasal exhalant air |
|
|
body weight
|
- rate of evaporative water loss decreases with increase in body weight
- smaller have more water lost at lower temperatures |
|
|
total rate of evaporative water loss
|
- varies greatly
- animals with lowest rates are those that combine advantages - low integumentary permeability to water - tightly controlled access of air to breathing organs - low metabolic rates - produce uric acid to conserve water |
|
|
water loss in urine
|
- can be reduced by producing concentrated urine
- or by producing poorly soluble nitrogenous end products |
|
|
animals that produce hyperosmotic urine
|
- insects
- birds - mammals |
|
|
concentration of urine
|
- maximum concentration is in part a function of size
- larger the animal the higher the concentration of urine |
|
|
amphibians
|
- can't make hypertonic urine to blood concentration
- skin highly permeable - absorb water and salts through skin - behavior controls water balance and seasonal dormancy used to survive in arid areas |
|
|
insects and lizards
|
- among the animals most physiologically capable of living in arid places
- insects can produce hypertonic urine to hemolymph concentration |
|
|
birds
|
- drink fresh water
- have weakly hypertonic urine |
|
|
desert animals
|
- behavioral adaptations
- camels have thick fur to reduce water loss, heat, and cool slowly - camels rehydrate in short period and withstand high levels of dehydration - some animals only come out at night - long limbs to keep them off desert surface - some drink water and others don't - depend on metabolic water production, water conservation - strongly hypertonic urine |
|
|
kangaroo rat
|
- burrow during the day = higher humidity
- don't drink water - seed eating mammals - depend on behavior selection of microhabitants - supplement diets with water rich diet - countercurrent exchange in nasal passages - long loops of Henle that allow a very hypertonic urine to blood concentration - even dried seeds contain some water |
|
|
metabolic water and glucose oxidation
|
- C6H12O6 + 6O2 = 6CO2 + H2O
- matters most in animals that conserve water effectively |
|
|
obligatory water loss
|
- respiration
- urine - feces |
|
|
lark species
|
- native to arid habitats exhibit particularly low rates of metabolism and water turnover
- less active - fewer clutches - then moist habitat larks |
|
|
plants and algae with salt tissue fluids
|
- pose challenges for herbivores
- some plants in dessert have salty tissues because soil in some desert regions are very saline |
|
|
halophytes
|
- grow in places like the great salt lakes
- major part of diet for some animals like desert sand rat and occasionally the dromedary camels - animals have ability to greatly concentrate urine because long loops of henle - animals have U/P greater than 5 |
|
|
kangaroo rat and human
|
- kangaroo rat has water balance of 2 mL/day
- humans have water balance of 2500 mL/day - kangaroo rat gain most their water from metabolism - humans obtain most their water from ingested liquids - kangaroo rat loses most his water by evaporation - humans lose most of their water by urine |
