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324 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are the functions of the digestive system?
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1. ingest (eat)
2. masticate (chew) 3. digest (break down) 4. absorb into blood and lymphatic systm 5. defecate (waste out) |
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What is eating controlled by?
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The hypothalamus controls hunger, cravings and being sated.
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What is the alimentary canal?
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The tube from mouth to anus. Also called the gastrointestinal tract.
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What are the layers of the alimentary canal?
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1. mucosa
2. submucosa 3. muscularis 4. either serosa or adventitia (depending on the organ) |
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Which is the most complicated layer of the alimentary canal?
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Mucosa
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Describe the submucosa layer of the alimentary tract.
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Connective tissue, glands, blood vessels, and nerve network for the muscle (submucosal plexus or Meissner's plexus). Tends to be thin.
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Describe the muscularis layer of alimentary tract.
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Two or three layers of smooth muscle. Performs peristalsis. Outer layer of the muscularis is called the myenteric plexus. Has nerves and works with the submucosa plexus. There's an inner circular layer and an outer layer, lengthwise, is shorter.
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Describe the outermost layer of the alimentary tract.
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It would either be serosa (a serous epithelium)- like the outer lining of the lungs - makes fluid, or it would be adventitia, dense irregular C.T. that anchors the organ. Depends on which organ it is.
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How does the vagus nerve affect digestion?
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The sympathetic nervous system lowers digestive movement with epinephrine and the parasympathetic nervous system increases digestive movement.
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What are the structures of the oral cavity (the mouth)?
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Bucca (cheeks)
Roof (or soft palate and uvula) Tongue Glands Parotid Gland Floor of the mouth |
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Describe the tongue.
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The tongue is only 25% visible, has skeletal muscle, papillae (bumps of taste buds) and an anchor for the lips (frenulum).
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Describe the glands in the oral cavity.
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Salivary glands (Saliva - 99% H20, salts & albumin)
Lysozyme - an antibacterial enzyme Amylase - turns starch into maltose sugar (works for an hour and continues until the stomach acid takes over because it needs a neutral pH) Parotid Gland - H2O & saliva - single duct near molar (front of ear to first molar) |
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Describe the floor of the mouth.
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Has two ducts with albumin in the secretions. The sublingual duct that is anterior behind the lower incisor, as well as more anterior ducts multiple ducts and the submandibular duct right behind the front teeth.
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What are the controls to increase salivation?
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Friction
Smell of food Thinking of food (sometimes seeing it, if you like it) |
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What are teeth?
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Dentes anchored in alveoli in the maxilla and mandible with periodontal ligaments, surrounded by gums.
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What is A?
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Enamel.
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What is B?
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Dentin.
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What is C?
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Pulp cavity.
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What types of teeth are there?
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Incisors - cutting teeth - 4 up and 4 down
Cuspids - vampire teeth (tearing) 2 up 2 down Bicuspids - premolars - 2 pairs up and 2 pairs down Molars - grinding - 2 pairs up and 2 pairs down Wisdom teeth - for grinding - 1 in each corner |
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What's another name for the swallowing process?
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deglutition
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How many stages are there for the swallowing process?
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Three stages:
1. voluntary 2. reflex/ pharyngeal (involuntary) 3. Esophageal stage Takes about 4 minutes for the whole trip. |
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Describe the first stage of the swallowing process.
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The voluntary stage. Tongue pushes food to the fauces and holds it in position.
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What is the fauces?
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The opening between the mouth and the pharynx.
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Describe the second stage of the swallowing process.
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The reflex/ laryngeal stage, which is involuntary, senses food, goes to the brainstem, lifts the soft palate (this protects the nasopharynx) and the epiglottis covers and closes the airways, slightly opens the esophagus and the food or liquid enters the esophagus.
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What happens during the last stage of the swallowing process?
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In the esophageal stage, peristalsis happens on the way to the stomach.
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Describe the esophagus.
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It is the tube from the pharynx, behind the heart, through the diaphragm and ends at the stomach just below the diaphragm. It performs peristalsis, adds mucus to the food and you can detect a bitter taste here. It can perform reverse peristalsis without the stomach if nausea is present.
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What are the layers of the esophagus?
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1. mucosa - stratified squamous epithelium
2. submucosa - has mucus glands 3. muscularis - upper 1/3 skeletal muscle, lower 2/3 smooth muscle 4. lower 1/3 to 1/2 serosa - the rest adventitia |
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What is A and what kind of pH is there?
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It is the fundus and it has a neutral pH.
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What is B and what kind of pH is there?
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It is the body of the stomach and it is acidic.
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What is located at C?
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The pyloric sphincter or ring muscle.
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What are the functions of the stomach?
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Secretion, Hormones, Churning, Protein digestion, Absorbing of water, salts, aspirin and sugar and Vomiting.
(Secrets have certain powerful addicting values) |
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What does gastrin hormone do?
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Increases motility of the gut, increases stomach secretions of mucus, acid, pepsinogen and intrinsic factor.
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What are the layers of the stomach?
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1. Mucosa
2. Submucosa 3. Muscularis 4. Serosa (and has a greater omentum) |
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Describe the mucosa of the stomach.
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Made up of simple columnar cells and goblet cells. Has gastric glands, secretory cells, zymogen cells, which makes pepsinogen, parietal cells, which makes hydrochloric acid and an intrinsic factor, and enteroendocrine cells.
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Describe the muscularis layer of the stomach.
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Has 3 layers and a sphincter (or two).
Layer 1. Inner Circular Layer Layer 2. Middle oblique, which churns, Layer 3. Outer Lengthwise Layers 1 and 3 do peristalsis, but all 3 are involved in vomiting. |
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What are the 3 parts of the small intestine?
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Duodenum, Jejunum and ileum.
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What secretes into the duodenum and what affect does it have?
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The liver and the pancreas secrete into the duodenum. The duodenum starts out very acidic and becomes almost neutral because of these secretions.
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What cells make up most of the pancreas?
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Acinar cells, exocrine cells, make up about 95% of the pancreas.
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What is sodium bicarbonate?
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Sodium bicarbonate, a secretion from the pancreas into the duodenum, is baking soda.
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Name a source of intestinal gas.
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Sodium bicarbonate mixes with the acid from the stomach (HCl) and becomes carbonic acid and that can break down into water and carbon dioxide. This is a source of intestinal gas.
NaHCO3 + HCI = Na+Cl- + H2CO3 (or H2O + CO2) |
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What does the pancreas secrete?
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Sodium bicarbonate and pancreatic enzymes.
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What makes up the pancreatic enzymes?
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Amylase, lipase, trypsin, carboxypeptidase, DNAases, and RNAases.
(Amy likes Trip 'cause dude rocks!!) |
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What does amylase do?
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Breaks down starch into maltose.
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What does lipase do?
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Turns lipids into fatty acids and glycerol.
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What does Trypsin and carboxypeptidase do?
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Turn proteins and peptides into smaller peptides.
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What do DNAases and RNAases do?
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Digest nucleic acids into nucleotides.
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What is enzyme release controlled by?
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There is some nervous system input, parasympathetic nervous system encourages enzyme release, but the control is mostly hormonal.
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What are the small intestine hormones?
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Secretin and cholecystokinin.
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What does cholecystokinin do?
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Makes the gall bladder empty. Released on the pancreas tells it to release all the enzymes and it is released by the small intestine when there's food in it.
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What is the division of the liver?
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It is a peritoneum called the Falciform Ligament.
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Describe the liver.
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It will grow a new lobe if removed. Is wrapped around the inferior vena cava. Oxygenated blood to the liver comes from the hepatic artery via the celiac. Nutrition is absorbed through the hepatic portal vein. Deoxygenated blood leaves through the short hepatic veins to the IVC.
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What kind of connective tissue makes up the liver?
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Reticular.
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What does a kupfer cell do?
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Removes bacteria and old red blood cells.
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Name a function of the liver and describe it.
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Bile production. Has bile salts, an emulsifier, has cholesterol, a waste product, has bilirubin, old hemoglobin waste. Secretes the bile, which is increased with the hormone secretin and with parasympathetic NS input, sends it out the duct to the gall bladder.
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Name all the functions of the liver.
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Bile production, produce complement proteins, produce clotting proteins, produce albumin, kupfer cells remove old blood cells, detoxifies poisons in the smooth ER, creates lipids and breaks them down to acetyl groups, stores excess iron, activates vitamin D, metabolizes proteins, metabolizes carbs, has a blood reservoir when it's needed.
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What is the mnemonic to help remember the functions of the liver?
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Because Chris Can Act Kiddish, Darla Likes Seeing A Mature Mama's Boy.
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Name some blood clotting proteins made by the liver.
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Prothrombin
fibrinogen Factor 7 Factor 8 Factor 10 |
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Why would you have trouble fighting infections or fighting cancer if you had liver trouble?
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Because you wouldn't have as many complement proteins
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What does albumin do in the blood?
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Keeps up vein pressure and prevents being swollen.
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What do Kupfer cells do?
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Removes old blood cells and bad WBCs like leukemia cells.
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What does the smooth ER in the liver do?
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Detoxifies poisons, inactivates medications and hormones.
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What complication could you encounter if you had a lot of smooth ER in your liver?
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Could cause problems for anesthesia. The anesthesia may not last as long as needed because it would be metabolized too quickly.
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What do lipids break down into?
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Acetyl groups.
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How do we absorb calcium?
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When we are out in the sun, the product that collects on our skin goes to the kidneys and liver where vitamin D is activated. We need vitamin D to absorb calcium.
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What kind of vitamins are stored in the liver?
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Oil soluble vitamins.
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What else is stored in the liver?
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Toxins and iron.
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What are the two things we metabolize in the liver?
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Proteins and carbohydrates.
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What's a "side stitch"?
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When the liver contracts the smooth muscle and increases blood in the veins when it is needed.
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What does the gall bladder do?
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The gall bladder is a storage tank for bile when the sphincter of Oddi is closed and the liver releases it.
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What's a gall stone?
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If bile sits long enough in the gall bladder and the person has a metabolic "oddness", the bile or cholesterol will make a "crystal" (or stone). When the CCK is released, the gall bladder tries to send the stone down the duct and it is very painful.
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What is the small intestine named for?
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The diameter of the intestine.
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Where does the small intestine start and end?
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Starts at the pyloric sphincter and ends at the ileocecal valve (the beginning of the large intestine).
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What are the three parts of the small intestine?
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1. Duodenum
2. Jejunum 3. Ileum |
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What are the layers of the small intestine?
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1. mucosa
2. submucosa 3. muscularis 4. Serosa - with mesentery |
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What are the two things you see in the mucosa of the small intestine and what do they do?
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Plicae Circularis, ring like folds which help "tumble" the food/ fluid mix, and villi which increase the surface area to absorb nutrients.
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What epithelia is on the villi of the small intestine?
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psuedo-stratified epithelia with goblet cells.
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What do the small intestines make?
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Hormones, mucus, sodium bicarbonate, enzymes and stem cells.
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How can you tell by the villi which section of the small intestine you're looking at?
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As the small intestine goes along, the villi gets longer the further along you are. It is shorter in the duodenum, a little longer in the jejunum and longest in the ileum.
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What's the difference in the submucosa for the different sections of the small intestine?
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In the duodenum, there are lots of mucus producing glands that don't take a lot of stain, so they are clear-ish, in the jejunum, there's connective tissue and blood vessels (not a lot going on) and in the ileum there is some empty spaces and then some places that have huge balls of lymphatic tissue called Peyer's Patches.
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What is a mesentery?
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The visceral peritoneum that connects the small intestine loosely to the body wall.
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What are the functions of the small intestine?
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Digestion, mechanical and chemical (finishing chemical here). Adds enzymes to the enzymes from the pancreas including maltase, galactase and lactase. Absorbs carbs by coupled transport - glucose and sodium.
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What does maltase do?
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Converts maltose sugar into glucose.
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What does galactase do?
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Converts galactose sugar into glucose.
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What does lactase do?
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Converts lactose (milk sugar) into glucose.
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What kind of coupled transport happens in the small intestine?
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Carbohydrates are absorbed in the small intestine by coupled transport of glucose and sodium.
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What happens if you did't have both the glucose and the sodium to transport into the cell?
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You would need active transport or ATP.
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Why is it important for someone who has severe diarrhea to replace sodium with their fluids?
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Someone with diarrhea loses a lot of sodium along with the food that isn't digested. If the food is replaced, but not the sodium, it is difficult to absorb because energy has been lost as well. They need the sodium with the glucose to digest the food and reserve energy.
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How are proteins broken down in the small intestine?
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Pepsin works on it in the stomach, trypsin from the pancreas goes into the small intestine works on it and peptidases all break the proteins down into amino acids, which are then absorbed by coupled transport with sodium.
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How are water soluble nutrients absorbed?
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Water soluble nutrients including water soluble vitamins are absorbed by coupled transport with sodium.
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How are nucleic acids broken down in the small intestine?
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They are digested by the pancreas DNAase and RNAase enzymes and the small intestine DNAases and RNAases into nucleotides and then absorbed through coupled transport with sodium.
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How are lipids broken down in the small intestine?
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Lipids are not water soluble. We need to emulsify them with bile salts, which enables the pancreatic lipase to contact and digest it. We then get fatty acids and glycerol from that. The fatty acids ball up into Micelles which diffuse right through cell membranes into villi into lymphatic vessels back to the heart.
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What are the hormones produces by the small intestines?
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The hormones produced by the crypts of the small intestines are secretin, CCK and Gastric inhibitory protein.
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What does secretin do in the small intestines?
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Secretin comes from the acid in the small intestine and causes a decrease in stomach emptying and secretion, an increase in sodium bicarbonate from the pancreas, an increase in bile from the liver and an increase in insulin.
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What does CCK stand for and what does it do in the small intestine?
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Cholecystokinin is produced in the small intestine in response to food, particularly protein and fat, it empties the gall bladder (the bile to the duodenum), increases enzymes from the pancreas and slows the emptying of the stomach.
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What does the gastric inhibitory protein do in the small intestine?
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It is produced in response to sugar in the small intestine and increases insulin secretion.
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What section is A and what kind of peritoneum does it have?
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Sigmoid Colon has a retroperitoneum.
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What section is B?
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Descending colon has a retroperitoneum.
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What section is C?
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Splenic Flexure.
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What section is D and what kind of peritoneum does it have?
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Transverse Colon has a serosa and a mesentery.
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What is section E?
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Hepatic Flexure.
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What is section F and what kind of peritoneum does it have?
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Ascending colon has a retroperitoneum.
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What is section G?
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The Cecum.
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What is H?
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The ileum.
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What is I and what does it do?
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The appendix stores healthy bacteria in case bacteria is lost by taking antibiotics or a bad case of diarrhea.
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What is this a picture of and what is located at A?
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This is a picture of the anus and A points to the internal anal sphincter.
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What muscles surround the anus?
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The pelvic floor muscles including the levator ani.
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What cells make up the mucosa of the large intestine and approximately what percentage do they make up of all the cells?
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The mucosa of the large intestine is made up simple columnar and goblet cells - about 50% each.
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What's in the submucosa of the large intestine?
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Bacteria, so also have Peyer's patches.
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What's in the muscularis of the large intestine?
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The inner circular layer, the outer layer which has 3 lengthwise bands called Taenia Coli and a sphincter.
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What is A and what does the name mean?
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Haustra means "pocket".
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What is B and how many are there?
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Taenia Coli. There are 3 of them.
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What are the functions of the large intestine?
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Motility, churning, mass peristalsis, opens into the ileocecal valve, digestion, absorption, dehydrate the stool and maintain water and pH balance.
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What aids in digestion in the large intestine?
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E coli bacteria takes excess nutrients and converts some into B vitamins which is needed for cellular respiration and vitamin K which is needed to make prothrombin.
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What is the gas that we fart called and what is it made up of?
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Flatus gas is made up of CO2, methane, hydrogen sulfide mixes (from digesting proteins, indole and skatole.
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What might be a cause of excess gas?
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Celiac disease or some other absorption disease.
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What is absorbed in the large intestine?
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Water, electrolytes and the E Coli produced vitamins.
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Can constipation be fatal?
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Yes, if the constipation is allowed to continue for too long, it can possibly rupture the colon.
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Can diarrhea be fatal?
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Yes, if diarrhea allowed to continue for too long, dehydration can set in, the patient can become acidic and malnourished.
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What is defecation?
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Mass peristalsis after gastrin release moves fecal matter towards and fills the rectum. Stretch receptors in the rectum walls fire sending a signal to the sacral-spinal nerves, getting a reflex response to contract the rectal muscles and dilate the anal sphincter. The levator ani aids the voluntary control.
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How are the digestive hormones different in pregnancy?
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There is more CCK which releases digestive hormones and slows down the gut. The food has more enzymes and stays in the gut longer often causing constipation. There is more oxytocin as well causing the release of milk and causes bonding for the mother to the baby.
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Where is the stratified squamous epithelium?
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C.
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Where is the skeletal muscle?
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A
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What is B called?
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The lumen.
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What area of the digestive system is this and how do you know?
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This is the stomach. It has a very thick mucosa.
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Label all three letters.
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A is the gastric pits. B is the gastric glands and C is the submucosa. A and B make up the mucosa.
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What kind of epithelium are we looking at and how do you know?
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Simple columnar epithelium because all the nuclei are all lined up in a row.
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What is this a slide of? What feature is this and what does it do?
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This is gastric (stomach) rugae (folds). The folds allow the stomach to stretch to accommodate a meal and reappear after the food has moved into the small intestine.
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What is this a slide of and how do you know?
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This is the large intestine. It has a lot of goblet cells and a peyer's patch at the bottom.
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What is this a slide of and what are the lines?
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Liver. The lines are blood vessels, bile ducts and some dense irregular connective tissue.
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What is this a slide of? What are the small circles? And what do they both produce?
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This is pancreas. The small circles are islets. The islets produce hormones and the background tissue produces enzymes and sodium bicarbonate.
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What is this a slide of and where is it located in the digestive system?
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This is a peyer's patch and it is most likely in the large intestine, but possibly in the lower end of the ileum.
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What is this a slide of and how do you know?
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It is the jejunum because it has very long villi and no glands.
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What is this a picture of and what do they do?
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Villi create more surface area for absorption in the digestive tract.
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In metabolism, hormones control what two things and what do they mean?
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Catabolism, to break down and Anabolism, to build or create.
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What hormone is used when feasting on carbohydrates?
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Feasting or absorbing is anabolism. Insulin causes cells to take in glucose and use it for cellular respiration. The liver takes in the excess and turn it into glycogen.
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What hormones are used when fasting or stressed from carbohydrates.
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Epinephrine causes a fast release of glycogen as glucose. If blood sugar is low enough, this will be triggered. Cortisone, growth hormone (during exercise) and glucagon all convert glycogen to glucose.
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When feasting on lipids, what hormone is used?
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Insulin converts glucose and amino acids to fatty acids and stores lipids.
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Regarding lipids, what hormone is used when fasting or stressed.
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Epinephrine releases fatty acids from adipose tissue, so blood triglyceride levels go up. Cortisone, growth hormone and glucagon together convert fatty acids to acetyl groups that then go to the blood and get used by the cells or become or become glucose by the liver and sent to the brain.
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For protein anabolism, what hormones are used?
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It is independent of eating or fasting. Insulin, growth hormone and androgens (and progesterone) cause amino acids to be used to make protein. Our body, under these hormones, are encourage to burn lipids and glucose as fuel, but not proteins.
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For protein catabolism, what hormones are used?
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It means 'to burn amino acids'. Cortisone and glucagon. In the absence of insulin, even while exercising, we still lose muscle.
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What is the metabolic rate?
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The affect of thyroid hormones - thyroxin, triiodothyronine, androgens and progesterone.
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How can we measure basal metabolic rate?
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Can be measured after fasting 12 hours, hooked up to a machine, given a sugar drink and have our CO2 measured, or you can take your tempature.
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What affects metabolic rate?
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Androgens (or gender), pregnancy increases it, exercise increases it, stress hormones increase it, eating increases it (especially proteins), age decreases it, sleep while you are sleeping and body heat loss slows it down.
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What are different ways of losing body heat?
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Radiation - heat being lost into the air, Conduction - heat being transferred to something else (like a cold chair), Convection - heat being lost in moving air such as wind or a fan and evaporation - heat lost as when sweat evaporates from your body - very effective.
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How do you prevent different ways of heat loss?
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Wear wam clothes, don't lean or sit on something cold, like a cold chair, wear a windbreaker or stand behind a wall and dry off if wet or sweaty.
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How would you help a feverish patient bring down their fever?
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Give them a sponge bath of lukewarm water. Warmer water helps to evaporate quicker and helps to lose the heat faster than cold water.
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What are the functions of the urinary system?
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Remove /filter waste from the blood, water balance, sodium control, blood pressure control, RBC count (blood O2), blood pH control, activation of home-made vitamin D. (Rachel Writes Sometimes Because Robert Backs Away)
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What kind of peritoneum do the kidneys have?
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Retroperitoneum on the posterior lumbar.
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What is the protection for the kidneys?
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Fat pad, floating ribs, lumbar muscles and a dense irregular connective tissue capsule around the outside.
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What is A - F?
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A. Calyx B. Medulla (pyramid) C. pelvis D. cortex E. Arcuate artery and vein F. Ureter
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What is located at the top of the kidney (not part of it)?
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Adrenal Gland
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What is A through F? (F is pointing to the outside portion of the picture).
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A. collecting duct B. Nephron loop or loop of Henle C. Distal Convoluted tubule D. Proximal Convoluted tubule E. Glomerulus complex F. Bowman's capsule
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What is the juxtaglomerular complex?
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When the nephron is folded so the distal convoluted tubule is near the incoming arteriole. The wall of the DCT thickens and sets the stage for making hormones. This happens about 15% of the time.
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Where is blood filtered in the nephron of the kidney?
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At the capsule or glomerulus.
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What is and is not filtered from the blood?
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There should be no blood cells or protein in the urine but anything small will go to the tubules and if not reclaimed will go to the urine.
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What affects filtration rate of blood in the nephron?
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Blood pressure and retaining fluids in the blood at the filter (we need albumin to keep the fluid at optimum levels).
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How are nutrients reclaimed in the nephron and where?
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The filtrate, or filtered fluid, goes to the proximal convoluted tubule where nutrients are reclaimed using active transport, then the fluid is sent back to the blood vessels. ATP is used to pull the filtrate into the cells and receptors in the cells bind to glucose, amino acids, nucleotides, vitamins and some sodium. Anything not reclaimed will remain and show up in the urine.
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What happens in the descending nephron loop?
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We reclaim sodium chloride and sodium by active transport and water will follow by osmosis.
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What happens in the ascending nephron loop?
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It is impermeable to water and uses active transport to reclaim sodium chloride. The filtered fluid is now diluted, or very watery. The result makes the medulla very salty.
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What are the functions of the distal convoluted tubule?
|
There are two. Adjust pH of the blood and the second function is controlled by aldosterone, which is use of the sodium/ potassium pump to reclaim water and sodium.
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How does the DCT adjust the pH of the blood?
|
Blood will lose carbonic acid and gain sodium bicarbonate, an acid buffer. Urine will lose salt and gain hydrochloric acid. This causes us to lose acid from our blood.
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What should the pH be of our urine?
|
Between 7 and 4.5
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How does the DCT control the balance of sodium and potassium?
|
With aldosterone present 3 sodiums will be swapped for 2 potassium and this will reclaim the water. This will happen for low sodium and low blood pressure.
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What is the collecting duct controlled by?
|
The collecting duct is controlled by Anti-Diuretic hormone. If it is present, the collecting duct walls will open "windows" to let water see where the salt is and leave. Water leaves by osmosis and stays in the body making the urine concentrated and have a lower volume
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What if ADH is not present in the collecting duct?
|
Then the "windows" are closed and all the water is going to the pelvis and the urine will be very diluted and have a large volume. This is what happens when drinking beer (or alcohol in general).
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Where does urine go after the collecting duct?
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To kidney pelvis.
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Describe the kidney pelvis.
|
A space lined with transitional epithelium with a large number of tight junctions. It is stretchy without causing leakage. Has adipose CT that is deep to the epithelium. Urine goes to the ureter from the kidney pelvis. There are valves at the bladder to keep urine from backing up. Could risk an infection if they failed.
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Describe the ureter.
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Transitional epithelium with mucosa, a submucosa and a muscularis that performs peristalsis. The outer layer, the peritoneum, is retroperitoneal down the back of the body until it reaches the pelvis.
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What is the function of the ureter?
|
To perform peristalsis and get the urine to the bladder.
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Where is the urinary bladder?
|
In the pelvis when it is empty, in the suprapubic region when it is really full and rarely in the umbilical region.
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Describe the urinary bladder.
|
Stores urine, has urination reflex, has a retroperitoneum that can lift to allow for expansion, has woven smooth muscle called a detrusor muscle, has an involuntary sphincter, uses the pelvic floor muscles for control, has a mucosa, a submucosa and a tridone.
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What makes up the submucosa of the bladder?
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It is boring, it only has connective tissue and nerves for reflexes.
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What is the tridone and what are it's borders?
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The tridone is a triangular patch of the bladder that does not stretch. It runs from the two ureter entry points to the urethra exit point. It is often here that is used for surgery if needed because it heals better that the stretchy areas of the bladder.
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What is another name for the bladder reflex?
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Micturition.
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Describe micturition.
|
The bladder gets full, triggering stretch receptor neurons, the signal goes to the spinal-sacral nerves and a signal is sent to the detrusor muscle to contract and tell the sphincter to relax. The perineal group of muscles, the pelvic floor muscles are used for control.
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What will happen if the bladder is not allowed to empty?
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When there's no place for the urine to go, the kidneys will shut down and stop making urine.
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What are the kidney function blood markers?
|
Creatinine, inulin, urea, pH and potassium. The first three are mostly looked at for kidney failure.
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What is creatinine?
|
A breakdown product from creatine phosphate, which recharges muscle cells and ATP. It is supposed to be cleared in the urine and not kept in the blood.
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What is inulin and what is it used for?
|
Inulin is a carbohydrate produced by the liver and cleared by the urine. It is benign. It is so benign, that if kidney function is in question, it will be injected to see how quickly it is cleared.
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What is urea?
|
Blood urea nitrogen, a waste product produced when using amino acids, or protein, as a fuel. It increases when burning proteins but should be cleared by the urine. It is never injected to test the kidneys because it makes you feel sick.
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What should blood pH be?
|
About 7.4. Urine should clear acid from the blood.
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Why is potassium looked at for kidney function?
|
Because it should be swapped for sodium in the urine. It is a sign of cell injury if it is increased and is not good for the heart.
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What is cystitis?
|
An inflamed or infected bladder. It is often referred to as a Urinary Tract Infection (UTI). It is more common in women than men due to the length of the urethra. It is often sexually related.
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What are the symptoms of a UTI?
|
Burning, or pain, during urination, frequency of urge increases due to the irritated stretch receptors, cramping after emptying, and if allowed to continue, can become a kidney infection.
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Label this diagram.
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A is the urethra. B. is a ureter and C is the bladder.
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What is the area in green called?
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The tridone.
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How long is the urethra?
|
For females, about 1 to 1 1/2 inches about 7 - 8 inches for males. For this reason, women are more susceptible to bladder infection.
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What are men more likely to get than women (regarding bladder infection)?
|
Urethritis, an inflammation of, or an infected urethra.
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What are some symptoms of a kidney infection?
|
An extremely high fever, 102 to 104 degree fever, posterior lumbar pain and run the risk of kidney damage.
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What is dysurea?
|
Pain with urination.
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What is the difference between acute and chronic kidney failure?
|
Acute kidney failure symptoms come on very quickly. The symptoms include, stop making and releasing urine, rapid increase in blood pressure, edema and an increase in potassium, acid, urea, etc. With chronic kidney failure, the functions all end slowly.
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Why is acute kidney failure bad for the heart?
|
The rapid increase in blood potassium and blood pressure.
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What is nephrotic syndrome?
|
It is a post infection that is common among kids and after strep throat. The immune system eats holes in the filters at the glomerulus. Because it is not filtering, blood contents end up getting peed, or flushed, out of the system.
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When water and sodium are linked together, what two things are they typically associated with?
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Blood volume and aldosterone (urine production, sweat, stool, vomit).
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What is it called when both water and sodium are high? What are the symptoms associated with it?
|
Hypervolemia. High blood pressure, flushed and distended jugular veins when standing.
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What is hypovolemia, what are the symptoms and what things can it progress to if not treated?
|
When both water and salt are low. Symptoms include low blood pressure, pale, high heart rate, skin tenting (pinching back of hand test) and sunken eyes. If not treated, can lead to heat exhaustion and if still not treated can lead to heat stroke.
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How can you tell if someone has heat exhaustion?
|
If they are flushed, but not wet from sweat (when they should be sweating).
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What are the water intake controls?
|
Baroreceptors, osmoreceptors and thirst center in the hypothalamus.
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What are the baroreceptors and where are they located?
|
They are located in the aorta, carotid sinus and the right atrium. They measure blood pressure and sends info to the thirst center in the hypothalamus.
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What are the osmoreceptors and where are they located?
|
They are located in the hypothalamus and they measure water percentage in the blood and sends the info to the thirst center in the hypothalamus.
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What is the thirst center, what does it do and where is it located?
|
The thirst center receives info from the baroreceptors and the osmoreceptors. It controls ADH to retain water in the collecting duct or not. It also goes to the anterior pituitary where it gets ACTH to increase the aldosterone it needs to control water and sodium at the distal convoluted tubules in the nephron.
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What happens when you have excess water but not enough salt? What it is called and what are the symtoms?
|
Hyponatremia. Brain and neuron cells can swell. Can go into a coma and die. There isn't enough salt outside the cell to keep it from all going into the brain cells.
(a way that I'm using to remember this - Hypo is below and na are the next two letters - the letters for salt -Na+) |
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What happens when there is not enough water but normal or an excess of salt? What is it called, what are the symptoms and what is a common cause?
|
Hypernatremia. Brain cells shrink, there is fever, nausea, dry mouth, low blood pressure, and confusion. More serious symptoms could be sleepiness, coma and death. The most common cause is alcohol.
(again hyper-excess na - salt) |
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What is affected by and what causes potassium imbalances?
|
Muscles and neurons are most affected by potassium imbalances. Cell injury will increase potassium and stress or aldosterone will cause a loss of potassium at the kidney.
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What is an excess of potassium called and what are the symptoms?
|
Hyperkalemia is an excess of potassium and the symptoms are a hyper heart and hyper nervous system. Increased heart rate and and hyper reflexes, diarrhea, nervousness, and skeletal muscle can go from over-tense to exhausted. (hyper - excess - K+).
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What is too little potassium called and what are the symptoms?
|
Hypokalemia caused depressed reflexes, decreased heart rate, low muscle tone, constipation and muscle twitches and cramps.
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What does an imbalance of calcium affect?
|
Bones, nervous system and heart.
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What is an excess of calcium called and what are the symptoms? What could cause it?
|
Hypercalcemia is excess calcium in the blood that can be caused by a bone injury or an increase in parathyroid hormone. It can cause mental slowness and depression (moans), bone pain and fractures (bones), constipation (groans), and kidney stones (stones). (Hyper- excess, Ca+)
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What is a lack of calcium called and what are the symptoms? What could cause it?
|
Hypocalcemia. It is often seen in malnourished people or pregnant women. It causes hyper reflexes, decreased heart rate and strength, diarrhea and irritability.
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What controls the acid/base (pH) balance?
|
Breathing, urine production (Distal Convoluted Tubules), buffers - sodium bicarbonate and proteins (somewhat).
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What causes acidosis? What are the symptoms?
|
Exercise causes an increase in lactic acid and decreases oxygen, not exhaling increases carbonic acid and also decreases oxygen, acid not being removed by the kidneys, diarrhea and not eating (starving). Symptoms include depressed brain function, increased breathing rate and depth, acidic urine and a stomach ache.
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What causes alkalosis? What are the symptoms?
|
Hyperventilating, sobbing, peeing too much (which is rare) and vomiting without diarrhea. Symptoms include dizziness, emotional hyper-brain, which can cause convulsions, constricted brain arteries, which can cause syncope, pins and needles, tetany in hands and feet, and decreased breathing rate or apnea.
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What is acidosis?
|
Too much acid in the blood.
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What is alkalosis?
|
Too much base in the blood.
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|
What are the functions of the male reproductive biology?
|
Produce sperm and semen, deliver sperm close to the egg, produce hormones, libido and orgasm.
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What are the male gonads? Describe them?
|
The male gonads are the testicles. They are suspended below the body by the scrotum, which is mostly hair and skin. The scrotum is 2 pouches fused together. The Dartos muscle wrinkles the skin of the scrotum. The spermatic cord that runs down the inguinal ring includes an artery, vein, nerves, vas deferens and the cremaster muscle.
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What does the cremaster muscle do?
|
It lifts the testicles when it's cold to warm them and lifts them for arousal and orgasm.
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What is this a picture of? Label the letters.
|
It is a picture of a testicle. A is the seminiferous tubules, B is the epididymis and C is the rete testis.
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What is this a slide of? What is the name of the cells not in the circles?
|
This is a seminiferous tubule. The cells in between the circles are called interstitial, or Leydig, cells.
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What is the name of the cells that are also called nurse cells that make food and estrogen to feed and protect baby sperm?
|
Sertoli cells.
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What do interstitial cells produce?
|
Androgens, testosterone, DHEA and other male hormones.
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What is the epididymis?
|
Tightly coiled tubes sitting on top of the testicles that store sperm for 1 to 10 days as the sperm mature and learn to move. It has smooth muscle that releases sperm and pre-orgasm to the vas deferens. It has a submucosa and the mucosa is made of simple columnar epithelium with flagella. The semen has water and glycogen for fuel.
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|
What is the vas deferens?
|
It is the male "plumbing" that runs from the epididymis, up the spermatic cord, around the side of the pelvis, enters the prostate gland in the back and goes to the urethra. It has a mucosa and submucosa and a muscularis that performs peristalsis.
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|
Name the structures.
|
A. Ureter B. Vas Deferens C. Seminal Vesicle D. Ampulla E. Seminal Duct F. Prostate G. Urethra H. Pelvic Floor Muscle I. Bulbourethral gland or Cowper's Gland J. Ejaculatory duct
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What are the seminal vesicles and what are the functions?
|
The seminal vesicles are glands behind the urinary bladder that connects the ejaculatory ducts to urethra in prostate gland. They produce about 60% of the semen. The put a lot of fructose sugar in it as fuel for the sperm and prostaglandins to increase contractions in the female and fibrinogen for clotting.
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What is the prostate gland, where is it and what are it's functions?
|
The prostate is a gland wrapped around the male's urethra beneath his bladder. It houses the intersection of the urinary system and the reproductive system. It is important for sexual response, has a high # of blood vessels around it, and it has smooth muscle. It releases secretions at orgasm. If it's overgrown, can cause urinary issues and it is prone to prostate cancer. It also blocks urine when the male is aroused.
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What are in the secretions released at orgasm by the prostate?
|
Clotting enzymes, pH buffers (because the female is acidic) making it safer for sperm and seminal plasmin, an antibiotic, which is also there to protect the sperm.
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Can you name the labels of the male anatomy?
|
A. Ureter B. seminal vesicle C. Bladder D. Vas Deferens E. Prostate F. Penis G. Urethra H. Glans Penis I. Foreskin j. Scrotum K. Testis L. Bulbourethral gland or Cowper's Gland M. Ejaculatory duct
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|
What is another name for the bulbourethral gland and what does it do?
|
The Cowper's gland produces a mucus, or pre-ejaculate that is released before the semen as a lubricant and it neutralizes any acidity due to residual drops of urine in the urethra.
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|
Describe the penis.
|
It releases semen and urine via the urethra. It is an erectile and fills with blood and expands when aroused and is very sensitive.
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What are the labeled parts of this cross section of penis?
|
A. Dorsal vein and arteries. B. Corpus Cavernosum (which fills up with blood during erection) C. Corpus Spongiosum with urethra and glans (the most sensitive part of the penis) D. Dense irregular connective tissue sheath.
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What happens during an erection?
|
The arteries in the penis dilate and fill with blood. The corpus cavernosa stretches the connective tissue sheath which then squashes the dorsal vein which decreases emptying. The cowper's gland releases mucus to create and release the pre-ejaculate.
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What happens during orgasm?
|
Sperm and semen are released from the epididymis. The vas deferens performs peristalsis. There is contraction and release of semen at the prostate and seminal vesicles. There is skeletal muscle contraction of the pelvic floor muscles and around the erectile bodies. Semen exits through the urethra.
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|
What are the functions of the female anatomy?
|
1. To produce about 1 egg a month, 2. prepare the lining of the uterus for an embryo, 3. Host, deliver and nurse a baby and 4. Sex drive and orgasm.
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|
What happens on day 1 of the ovarian cycle?
|
It gets hit with Follicle Stimulating Hormone from the pituitary so one follicle starts growing.
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|
What is the structure on the left?
|
Secondary Follicle.
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|
Identify the structure on the right.
|
Mature graafian follicle.
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|
What's the inner-most layer of the graafian follicle called?
|
Basal Lamina.
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What's the inner layer of cells called on a graafian follicle called and what do they do?
|
The Theca Interna and it makes estrogen and food.
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What's the outer layer of cells called on a graafian follicle and what do they do?
|
Theca Externa and they make androgens, some becoming estrogen and some responsible for the woman's libido.
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|
What happens at Day 14 of the ovarian cycle?
|
Luteinizing Hormone hits the ovary from the pituitary. The follicle "pops", or ovulates into the abdominal cavity. If the oocyte is fertilized, it usually happens in the abdominal cavity. The luteinizing hormone goes to the remaining follicles and the cells now make progesterone, turn yellow and the former follicle is now called the corpus luteum. For this next week, it is called the "luteal phase".
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|
What are the first three phases of the ovarian cycle called?
|
Day 1-7 is called the proliferative phase, Days 7-14 are called the follicular or estrogen phase and days 14-21 are called the progesterone or luteal phase.
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|
What happens if the egg is fertilized?
|
If the egg is fertilized, the embryo releases Human Chorionic Gonadotropin, which tells the ovary "I'm pregnant". The corpus luteum will continue to make progesterone for 3 months.
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What happens if the egg is NOT fertilized?
|
There will be no embryo, so there will be no HCG. The corpus luteum shrinks, progesterone goes down and scars over and now it is called corpus albicans meaning "white body" and this phase is called the degenerative phase which takes places around days 21-28
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|
What is the fimbriae?
|
The fringe-like structure at the opening of the fallopian tube by the ovary. It sweeps over the ovary, possibly helping the follicle "pop".
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|
Describe the histology of the fallopian tube.
|
The fallopian tube has 2 layers of smooth muscle that perform peristalsis towards the ovary. It has mucosa with rugae and it has pseudo-stratified, ciliated, columnar epithelium. The cilia sweep towards the uterus.
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|
What is a pregnancy in the fallopian tube?
|
Ectopic pregnancy.
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|
What are the words that stand for the tissue of the uterus?
|
Hyster and metrium.
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|
Where is the uterus located?
|
On top of the bladder and on top of the vagina.
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|
Describe the cervix.
|
Cervix also mean "neck". It sticks out into the vagina making it prone to infections and cancer. The opening to the cervix is called the "os" and is usually plugged with mucus.
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|
Describe the cervical mucus.
|
It is acidic, it increases with arousal and changes with the hormone cycle.
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|
What is happening on the first day of the menstrual cycle?
|
The first day of the period is when a woman is shedding dead cells and blood. Eventually leaving behind one layer of cells - the basal layer.
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|
What is the functional layer of the uterus?
|
It is the layer of the uterus that changes with the hormone cycle. It builds and increases in mitosis adding blood vessels, spiral arteries and glands (food for the sperm and embryo) during the proliferative and secretory phases until an embryo does not implant. Then during the degenerative phase, the functional layer is sloughed off and secreted as menstrual fluid.
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Why is the functional layer sloughed off during the degenerative phase?
|
During the degenerative phase, progesterone drops causing arteries to die and pinch off, there is no Oxygen so the cells in the functional layer die. When it starts to be secreted, the menstrual period begins.
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|
What is amenorrhea?
|
Not having a menstrual cycle. Could be caused by so little body fat and stress or by pregnancy. (A lot of women would say "amen!" if they didn't get their period - for non-worrisome reasons!)
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|
What is Dysmenorrhea?
|
Cramps. Normal causes include an increase in lactic acid (the uterus is contracting) and an increase in prostaglandins - the body produces them to cause the contractions and prostaglandins also cause pain and diarrhea. Non-normal causes could be infection, miscarriage, tumors, endometriosis.
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|
What are the ligaments that support the uterus?
|
Ovarian ligament, uterine ligament, broad ligament (peritoneal sheet), pelvic floor muscles and vaginal muscles.
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|
Describe the vagina.
|
Meaning "sheath for a sword", it is not the external bits, it goes through the pelvic floor, goes around the cervix of the uterus, is between the urethra and the rectum, has dense connective tissue, and smooth muscle that is part of the sexual response and a mucosa.
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Describe the mucus of the vagina.
|
With estrogen (typically in women of child-bearing years), it is made of stratified squamous epithelia. Without estrogen (typically in children and post-menopausal women), it is simple cuboidal so post-menopausal women will need to use a lubricant for more comfortable sex.
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|
What is the vulva?
|
Female genitals.
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|
What is the fat over the pubic bone called?
|
Mons pubis.
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|
Describe the vulva.
|
The outer part - fat lips are called labia majora (equivalent to scrotum in men), inside those are labia minora (equivalent to penis skin). At the top of the labia minora is the clitoris. In between the labia minora is the urethral opening and the vaginal opening.
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|
What are Skene's Glands?
|
Glands near the urethra that produce mucus. Thought to possible be linked to the G-spot.
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|
What are vestibular glands?
|
Also known as Bartholin's glands, they are glands that are located near the vaginal opening that produce mucus during arousal. They are equivalent to the bulbourethral glands in men.
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|
What is this a picture of and can you label the letters?
|
The clitoris, A. corpus cavernosum B. Crus clitoris, C. urethral opening, D. Bulb of vestibule, E. Vaginal opening
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|
What happens in arousal for a woman?
|
The blood supply is increased and there is erection at the clitoris and vestibular bodies and they transmit vibrations. There is an increase of secretion of mucus and erectile tissues will transmit vibrations.
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|
What happens during orgasm for a woman?
|
There is one or more uterine contractions, especially with cervical stimulation. There is also pelvic floor muscle contractions and contractions around the vestibular body.
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|
How can the vulva change over time?
|
The vulva can change with time and with hormones. One change can be the urethra ends up inside the vaginal opening.
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|
What is female genital cutting?
|
It is the barbaric practice of removing, or partially removing a female's genitalia including the clitoris, often with no anesthesia and using unsterilized equipment.
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|
What is the only 100% effective method of contraception and safe sex?
|
Abstinence.
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|
What is the sterilization called for a man and what does it involve? How effective is it?
|
Vasectomy. One inch of the vas deferens behind the scrotum is removed and the ends cauterized. It is 99.99% effective.
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|
What is sterilization called for a female and what does it involve? How effective is it?
|
Tubule ligation. One inch of each oviduct is removed and the ends cauterized. It is 99.99% effective. A new procedure is emerging that plugs the oviduct instead.
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|
What is spermicide? Describe it.
|
It is a sperm killer, often a drug called Nanoxynol 9. There are different forms including foams and jellies. It can be an irritant, so it will decrease safer sex by irritating the sensitive tissues of genitalia. It should be used with a physical barrier type of contraception.
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|
Describe condoms and how they are used.
|
A condom is placed on an erect penis by being unrolled from top to bottom, being careful not to touch the wrong side to the penis head. The air in the tip of the condom should be removed by pinching before unrolling the condom. No oil should be used with a condom because it can dissolve the latex of the condom. Lubrication is needed with a condom and a spermicidal jelly is the best option. When removing, the base of the condom should be held to avoid slipping out of it.
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|
What is a female condom?
|
It is a condom placed in the vagina before sexual intercourse. It has an outer ring and an inner ring. The inner ring gets pinched and placed into the vagina.
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|
What is a contraceptive diaphragm and how it is used?
|
A diaphragm is cervical barrier type of contraceptive. It is a latex or silicone ring placed in the vagina after it is filled with spermicidal jelly. it is left in for 6 hours after intercourse.
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|
Name another contraceptive device that protects the cervix and describe it.
|
A cervical cap is a silicone cup that is placed over the cervix and can be left in for a week.
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|
What does a sponge have inside it and how long is it left in place?
|
A contraceptive sponge has spermicide inside it and when used, it is made wet first to active the spermicide and then it is inserted and left in for 6 hours after intercourse.
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|
How can oral sex be made safer?
|
A guy can put a condom on and a cut open condom or latex glove can be used for a woman. A dental dam is made just for that purpose.
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|
How does the hormonal method of contraception work?
|
It increases progesterone or estrogen or both, fooling the body into thinking it's pregnant when it is not. It suppresses Follicle stimulating hormone so there's no new egg. It also makes the uterus less hospitable for an embryo.
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|
What are the risks of using hormonal contraception?
|
There is a risk of an increase in clotting, so there is a higher risk of strokes and heart attacks. It also increases your risk of breast cancer, but decreases risk of ovarian cancer. There is also the risk that the effectiveness may be reduced by using antibiotics as well. An alternative should be used during and 1 week after antibiotics are taken.
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|
What kinds of hormonal contraceptions are there?
|
The daily pill is a set of 3 weeks of hormone pills and one week of sugar pills (or just the 3 weeks of hormone pills). There is Depo-provera shots for 1 month or 3 months, there is an implant that can last up to 3 years, there are patches you can put on the skin that last for a month, and there is the Nuva-ring that is a vaginal ring that dissolves in the vagina that lasts for a month.
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|
What is another name for the "Morning After Pill" and what does it do?
|
It is also called "Plan B". It suppresses ovulation and makes the uterus inhospitable to an embryo.
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|
Not a form of contraception, what is the abortion pill and what does it do?
|
This pill blocks progesterone and is taken in conjunction with a second pill that induces contractions forcing a miscarriage to take place. It works for only the first 2 months.
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|
What is an IUD?
|
It is an intra-uterine device. It is put into the uterus and left there. It is a small plastic wire that is either wrapped in copper or contains hormones. The hormone covered one is effective for up to 5 years and the copper one is good for up to 10 years.
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|
How effect is coitus interuptus?
|
Coitus interuptus, or withdrawal, which is removing the erect penis before orgasm, is not very effective because sperm can be in pre-ejaculate.
|
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|
What is the rhythm method?
|
In order for the rhythm method to work, the woman must have a predictable, regular cycle. Cervical mucus must be monitored as well as body temperature.
|
|
|
What are the early signs of pregnancy?
|
1. amenorrhea 2. tiredness 3. nausea 4. breast changes 5. uterine cramping and 6. an increase in HCG causing the cervix to get larger and softer
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|
What are the later signs of pregnancy?
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7. an increase in subcutaneous fat 8. increase in metabolism 9. linea negra (dark line down the belly) 10. fetal heartbeat 11. feeling the baby move, also called "quickening"
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What are the major adjustments the body goes through in pregnancy?
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1. weight gain 2. digestion changes 3. circulation changes 4. respiration changes 5. urinary system needs 6. musculoskeletal changes 7. immunity changes 8. breast changes
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What are the digestion changes in pregnancy?
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There is an increase in release of CCK, an increase in digestive enzymes, a decrease in motility, an increase in efficiency, an increase in constipation and an increase in food cravings.
(what does a pregnant woman need? Really Deep Massage Especially (for) Calf Cramping) |
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What are the circulation changes for the pregnant body?
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Increased cardiac output by 30%, an increase in need for iron and an increase in size of the arteries to the uterus and ovaries.
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What are the respiration changes for a pregnant woman?
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There's an increase in need for oxygen, but a decrease in space for breathing.
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What are the urinary changes for a pregnant woman?
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There's an increase in need to remove waste, but a decrease in space for the bladder.
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What are the musculoskeletal changes for a pregnant woman?
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There is a change in center of gravity due to the added weight in the belly (moves south), there is an increase in demand for calcium, and at 8 months, the placenta releases a hormone 'relaxin' that softens the pelvic joints.
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What are the immunity changes for the pregnant body?
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The body's immune response goes down somewhat so it doesn't reject the baby. That leaves the woman at a significant risk for infection.
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Can you label the parts of the breast anatomy? What surrounds the nipple? What hormonal influences caused these changes?
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A. Mammary Glands (progesterone) secrete milk (prolactin) B. Duct (made by way of estrogen) C. Ampulla stores milk (and secretes it when oxytocin is present) D. Nipple
side note: Areola has a dark color and scent to help baby find it. |
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What is this slide of?
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Epididymis
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What is this a slide of?
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Seminiferous tubule of the testes.
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What is this a slide of?
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Sperm.
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What is this a slide of?
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Vas Deferens with rugae.
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What is this a slide of?
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Prostate.
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What is this a slide of?
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Seminal vesicle.
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What is this a slide of and what is the blue arrow pointing to?
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This is penile erectile tissue. It is the corpus spongiosum. The blue arrow is pointing to the urethra.
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What is this a slide of?
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Mammary Glands.
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What is this a cross section of?
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Fallopian tube.
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What is this a slide of and how can you tell what phase it is?
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Endometrium in late secretory phase (has open spaced glands).
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What is this a slide of and what phase is it?
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Endometrium - late menstrual, early proliferative.
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What is this a slide of and what phase is it?
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Endometrium - late proliferative (glands are getting a little longer)
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This is a urinary slide - what specifically?
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Ureter.
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Another urinary slide - what specifically?
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Transitional epithelium.
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Urinary slide - what is it?
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Proximal convoluted tubule.
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What is this a slide of?
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kidney - medulla.
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What is this a slide of?
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kidney cortex with glomeruli.
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What is this a slide of?
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Glomerulus and capsule close up.
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What is this a slide of and what are the two structures seen here?
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Kidney pyramid on right and calyx on the left.
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What happens to hormones at 8 months pregnancy?
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There's an increase of relaxin, an increase in prolactin (getting ready for lactation) and a decrease in progesterone, which will increase uterine contractions
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What happens with labor?
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Cortisone, or cortisol, from the adrenal glands of the fetus cause the uterus to become more active. With contractions, the baby's head pushes on the cervix. With stimulation of the cervix, the pituitary releases oxytocin which also causes uterine contractions (as well as lactation and emotional bonding).
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Describe early labor.
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Dilating of the cervix (os) which needs to open from 1 cm to 10 cm., the baby becomes positioned at the cervix, the contractions are not as frequent as late stage labor, the contractions are often felt in the lower back, the mucus plug is dislodged, and often the amniotic sack is ruptured.
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Describe late labor or expulsion.
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Baby gets pushed out by the uterine contactions and abdominal contractions. A lot of pain, lactic acid increases. Baby's head is pushing on the anterior sacral nerves (pain often runs down the legs), vagina has to stretch to 10 cm. as well and often needs an episiotomy (a cut so not to rip), and the pelvis stretches as well.
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After birth, what happens?
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The placenta needs to be pushed out. It is better to allow it to be pushed out instead of removed. The uterus continues to contract, closing off the arteries (the decreases the risk of bleeding). All of the placenta needs to be accounted for, any piece left inside will cause an infection. The next 6 weeks, the uterus will continue to contract decreasing in size and closing the os.
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What is a cesarean section?
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A surgical birth performed if the baby is in distress or often, in breach position.
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What is breach position?
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Feet first.
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What are newborns tested for?
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Apgar scores measure the baby's color (not blue or pale - could mean low oxygen or heart trouble if blue and anemia if pale) , pulse, grasp, activity or muscle tone and respiration (how many breaths per minute - ave. 40)
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