Bisc 101

Front 1

Describe the changes that occur when you have Unicellular to multicellular, what are the adaptations/solutions associated with these changes?

Back 1

- SA to V decreses -> diffusion is less efficient
- cells in the middle of organisms not in contact with the environment (distance problem)
- SOLUTION: start branching off (decreasing distances), never make shape of a cube

-(ex)- insects have trachea (little tubes) around their bodies that bring O2 into their bodies

Front 2

Blood Glucose Regulation Summary *** VERY LONG ***

Back 2

If blood glucose rises passed the set point, insulin is released by the beta cells of the pancreas. This leads to an uptake of blood glucose in the liver to be stored as glycogen as well as increased uptake by other cells of the body. The blood glucose levels will decline back to the set point where insulin secretion will stop.
If blood glucose levels fall passed the set point, glucagon is released by the alpha cells of the pancreas. This leads to breakdown of glycogen in the liver and released as glucose into the bloodstream. Blood glucose levels will rise back to the set point where the secretion of glucagon will stop.

Front 3

What are the factors that cause the stomata to open? to close?

Back 3

Open due to light, lots of water, high concentration of Potassium ions, low concentration of carbon dioxide

Close when there is low light, little water, and low concentration of Potassium ions

Front 4

Asexual Reproduction

Back 4

- vegetative propagation
- bulbs (tulips)
- stems (roses)
- tubers (potatoes)
- stolons (strawberries) -> off-spring are genetically identical

Front 5

Sexual Reproduction

Back 5

Fusion of male and female gametes

Front 6

Nutrients that plants need in order to grow

Back 6

macronutrients (in high concentrations) Ca+, O2, Na, K...
micronutrients (in low concentrations) iron, boron, zinc...

Front 7

How does water move through a tree?

Back 7

Water leaving the leaf creates a water deficit (negative tension) which creates a "transpirational pull" of water up the xylem. Water forms a column through Hydrogen bonding
- column of water moving up the xylem
- "bulk flow" of water due to "transpirational pull"

Front 8

Describe the general plant transport system

Back 8

Water and nutrients are taken up by the roots into the plant through the xylem, transport of sugars from leaves to roots transported by the phloem

Front 9

How can you make fruitless seeds?

Back 9

(1) Make a triploid (sterile) - ex - banana
2n x 4n } colchicine inhibits mitosis
3n
(2) Spray with hormones that cause ovules to abort (ex - seedless grapes)
(3) Parthenorapy - development of a fruit without fertilization and no seeds (ex - long English cucumber)

Front 10

How do plants know when to flower?

Back 10

Photoperiod- duration of light vs. dark
- Short day plants - need long nights to flower
- (ex) poinsettias
- Long day plants - need short nights to flower
- (ex) lettuce

Front 11

How do seeds know when to germinate?

Back 11

An increase in temperature, increase in moisture, and increase in Giberellic acid
Activity of alpha amylase increases
Sugar is provided
endosperm is broken down

Front 12

Describe what regulators and conformers are

Back 12

- Regulators keep the internal environment constant regardless of changes in the external environment
- This allows the regulator to live in a wide variety of environments at the cost of the extra energy needed to maintain a constant internal environment
- Conformers allow the internal environment to change with fluctuations in the external environment
- Conforming requires less energy as it does not have to spend energy to maintain the internal environment, but narrows the potential places a conformer may live in

Front 13

************************************************
Animal Tissues:

Back 13

1.Epithelial tissue – covers the outside of the body and line organs and cavities within the body  protection against mechanical injury, pathogens and fluid loss
2.Connective tissue – holds many tissues and organs together and in place
3.Muscle tissue – body movement, heart function
4.Nervous tissue – general control of the body, sensations, cognitive functions , reflexes

Front 14

Homeostasis vs. Enantiostasis

Back 14

Homeostasis – internal environment is kept constant regardless of the changes in the external environment; this is needed to keep the optimal conditions in the body for enzymes and reactions

Enantiostasis – organisms deal with changes in the environment by allowing the internal conditions to change with the environment.

Front 15

************************************************Describe BMR

Back 15

BMR = minimum metabolic rate of a non-growing endotherm, at rest, with an empty stomach and no stress

*** DRAW THE DIAGRAM***
-small endotherms need less oxygen compared to large endotherms as less tissue means lower amount of oxygen needed
-an elephant will require more oxygen than a small mouse
-small endotherms are generally more active and alert and have large SA to V ratios, meaning they lose heat quickly
-small endotherms require ore oxygen per kg of tissue than large endotherms

Front 16

Describe the alimentary canal

Back 16

Alimentary Canal
-separation of digested and undigested materials
-can store food and digest it at a later time, can also eat more when food is available
-allows for specialization of compartments to increase efficiency of breakdown of more complex foods

Front 17

Describe the various feeding mechanisms

Back 17

-Suspension feeding: sift particles from surrounding water
-Substrate feeder: living on the foods which they eat (caterpillar)
-Fluid Feeding: feeding of liquids such as nectar or blood
-Bulk Feeding: acquiring nutrients by taking in large pieces of food

Front 18

Describe dentition and diet

Back 18

-Carnivores: large pointed incisors and canines that can be used to kill prey and rip away pieces of flesh (ex) – cats and dogs
-Herbivores: premolars and molars with broad, ridged surfaces that can grind tough plant material, absence of canines – (ex)- horses and deers
-Omnivores: blade like incisors for biting, a pair of pointed canines for tearing, four premolars for grinding and six molars for crushing (ex) – humans

Front 19

Describe some stomach adaptations

Back 19

-Muscular wall for mechanical digestion
-Large space to allow more food to be taken in at one time
-Secretions of HCL from the parietal cells which activate pepsinogen
-pepsinogen is a proenzyme which means it can be stored without digesting the body

Front 20

Describe Intestine Adaptations

Back 20

-Many extra folding in the wall (villi and microvilli) to increase SA for absorption
-High [ ] of membrane bound proteins to increase active and facilitated transport of nutrients
-High blood supply and blood flow to carry away the nutrients absorbed to maintain a high [ ] gradient

Front 21

************************************************Air breathing vs. water breathing

Back 21

Air Breathing
Air has higher partial pressure o f oxygen
Air is easier to breath in (less energy needed)
But not efficient


Water Breathing
Water has less oxygen compared to air
Water is more dense and viscous (hard to move and needs more energy)
More efficient

Front 22

************************************************Describe the counter current exchange in fish

Back 22

- blood flows in the direction opposite to water passing the gills
-counter-current flow of water and blood maintains a concentration gradient which allows oxygen to diffuse into the blood over the whole length of a capillary
-as blood flows through a lamellar capillary, it becomes more and more loaded with oxygen
-maximizes oxygen transfer from the water to the blood.

Front 23

************************************************Describe the Bohr shift

Back 23

** draw the diagram **
- CO2 increases in blood = drop in pH
- lower pH = lower affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen, thus increasing unloading of O2 at the tissues
- the delivery of oxygen to the tissues is very fast

Front 24

************************************************Fetal Hemoglobin

Back 24

** draw the diagram **
- mother and fetus have the same blood supply, therefore O2 is shared
- developing fetus needs lots of oxygen
- if the mother and fetus have the same hemoglobin type, there is a competition for Oxygen, so the fetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen compared to normal hemoglobin, which allows the fetus to take O2 from the mother's blood more efficiently

Front 25

Hemoglobin in high altitude animals

Back 25

-Many animals living in higher altitudes have hemoglobin that has been adapted to bind more tightly to oxygen at low partial pressures, this allows them to get enough O2 even in low oxygen environments

Front 26

Open Circulatory system

Back 26

-Circulatory fluid = hemolymph
-Bathes organs directly (interstitial fluid)
-Can have multiple tubular hearts
-Chemical exchange occurs between hemolymph and body cells
-low hydrostatic pressure, requires less energy to maintain (compared to closed)

Front 27

Closed Circulatory System

Back 27

-Circulatory fluid = blood
-Confined to blood vessels, so is separated from the intersticial fluid
-Chemical exchanges occurs between blood and interstitial fluid, as well as between interstitial fluid and body cells
-High blood pressure enables effective delivery of O2 and nutrients in large, active animals which requires more energy

Front 28

***********************************************Osmoregulation in salt water fish vs. freshwater fish

Back 28

Salt water fish":
-gain of water and ions from food and drinking of seawater
- osmotic water loss through gills and parts of body surface
- excretion of salt from gills

Freshwater fish:
- uptake of water and some ions in food
-osmotic water gain through gills
-uptake of salt ions by gills
-excretion of large amounts of water in urine

Front 29

Describe the disadvantages of drinking sea water

Back 29

-Sea water contains a higher concentration of salts compared to the blood
-After drinking sea water, the blood will be higher in solute concentration compared to any part of the kidney
-this draws water into the nephron instead of reabsorbing water
-It will take 10 times as much water to eliminate the amount of salt water gained from drinking the same volume of sea water

Front 30

Plieotropy

Back 30

-The same hormone can activiate different receptors which will lead to the activation of different downstream products leading to different responses from the cells (ex) – epinenephrine

Front 31

Modes of Heat Exchange

Back 31

-Radiation
-Evaporation
-Conduction
-Convection

Front 32

What are four types of dormancy?

Back 32

-Torpor: Decreasing metabolic rate and body temperature to conserve energy
-Hibernation – long bouts of torpor during the winter to conserve energy that would otherwise be used to deal with low temperatures
-Aestivation: Long bouts of torpor during the summer to conserve energy that would be used to deal with high temperatures and generally dry environments
-Winter Sleep: reduction of activity in the winter to save energy, body temperature and metabolism remain relatively same as normal, but heart rate is reduced

Front 33

************************************************Central Nervous system vs. Peripheral Nervous system vs. Endocrine System

Back 33

Central Nervous System:
-Consists of the brain and spinal cord
-Integrates information received from the sensory and coordinates the appropriate response

Peripheral Nervous System:
-Consists of the nerves and ganglia outside of the CNS
-PNS connects the CNS to the rest of the body by sending information to the CNS (sensory input) as well as responding to signals from the CNS (motor output)

Endocrine System:
-slow speed, signals to lots of cells, long duration, hormones released, signalling through bloodstream, hormones usually regulated through feedback

Front 34

What are the different plant tissue types?

Back 34

1. Meristem Tissue – growth the plant (apical meristem, vascular cambium)
2. Vascular Tissue – transport of water and nutrients (Xylem and Phloem)
3. Dermal Tissue – protection of the plant (epidermis)
4. Ground Tissue – nutrient storage, replacement of damaged cells, structural support (cortex, mesophyll cells)

Front 35

Hydrophyte vs. Xerophyte

Back 35

Xerophytes: plants that live in hot and dry environments
-Thick cuticles prevent loss of water in hot environments
-Cells modified for water storage allow for xerophytes to live in hot arid environments
-reduced leaf size to reduce SA
-opening of stomata at night to reduce water loss

Hydrophyte: plants that live in areas of plenty of water
-Reduced xylem, as water is all around them
-Air cavities in hydrophytes help them maintain buoyancy and float in water

Front 36

************************************************Animal Cell vs. Plant cell

Back 36

Animal cells:
-dont have fixed shape, no vacuoles/small vacuoles, no cell wall, no chloroplast, have centrioles, store glycogen

Plant cells
- fixed shape, large vacuoles, have cell wall, have chloroplasts, store starch, no centrioles

Front 37

************************************************Name the 5 endocrine glands and their general functions
** answer straight from practice exam... I got lazy**

Back 37

1. Hypothalamus - releases ADH, oxytocin, many releasing factors that cause the release of other hormones
2. Pineal - produces melatonin (sleep patterns)
3. Pituitary - releases growth hormones, thryroid stimulating hormones, and ACTH (stress hormone)
4. Thyroid Gland - releases T3 and T4 which regulate rate of metabolism, produces calcitonin- reduces blood calcium
5. Parathyroid gland - releases PTH (increase in blood calcium)

Front 38

************************************************Describe Vertebrate Digestion and its advantages

Back 38

- 1-way tract, compartmentalization

- compartmentalization, increase SA for digestion and absorption, take more food in before last meal is digested, no mix of food and wastes

Front 39

************************************************Gastrovascular Cavity

Back 39

simple space with one opening where both digestion and uptake of nutrients happens
-food is digested extracellularly, waste is expelled through single opening, wastes and foods are mixed

Front 40

************************************************Blood flow in fish, amphibians and mammals

What are the advantages of the mammalian system

Back 40

Fish: 2 chambered heart, single circulation
atria->ventricle->gills->systemic circuit->back to atria

Amphibians: 3 chambered heart, mix of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
R. Atrium-> ventricle->pulmocutaneous->L.Atria->
Systemic circuit->R.Atria **OR** R. arium->ventricle
->systemic ->aria

Mammals: 4 chambered heart
R. atrium->R.ventricle->lungs->L.atria->L.ventricle
->systemic circuit->R.atria

Advanages: higher pressure system=faster delivery of O2, and faster elimination of wastes, separated ventricle means no mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood

Front 41

*** I didn't finish all of the practice exam questions cause im too tired , so study the cross pollination question, the PEP carboxylase in C4 plants question, the special adaptations of the nervous system that result in the fast startle rsponse in fish question, the three types of nitrogenous waste question, the subdivisions of the peripheral nervous system question, rubisco in C3 plants question, and the slow and fast muscle and the role of Ca++ question

Back 41

Sorry guys