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187 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Nature
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everything in the universe except what humans have manufactured
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Atoms
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fundamental building blocks of all substances, living and nonliving
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Molecules
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units in which atoms are joined together
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Cell
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smallest unit of life that can survive and reproduce on its own, given DNA, energy inputs, raw materials, and suitable environmental conditions
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Organism
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individual that consists of one or more cells
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Population
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group of individuals of the same kind of organism, or species, in a specified area
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Communities
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consists of all populations of all species in a specified area
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Ecosystem
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community interacting with its physical and chemical environment
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Biosphere
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encompasses all regions of the earth's crust, waters, and atmosphere in which organisms live
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Emergent properties
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characteristics of a system that do not appear in any of its component parts
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Energy
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capacity to do work
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Nutrient
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particular type of atom or molecule that has an essential role in growth and survival
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Producers
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get energy and simple raw materials from environmental sources and make their own food
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Photosynthesis
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use energy from the sun to make sugars from carbon dioxide and water
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Consumers
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cannot make their own food and get energy and food indirectly (by eating producers and other organisms)
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Receptor
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molecule or cellular structure that responds to a specific form of stimulation (such as the energy from sunlight or mechanical energy of a bite)
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Homeostasis
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organisms sense and adjust to change to keep the conditions of their internal environment within a range that favors cell survival
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DNA
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signature molecule of life
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Inheritance
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transmission of DNA from parents to offspring
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Reproduction
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actual mechanisms by which parents transmit DNA to offspring
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Development
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the orderly transformation of the first cell of a new individual into an adult
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Species
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kinds of organisms
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Genus
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a group of species that share a unique set of features
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Bacteria and archaeans
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single celled organisms
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Protists
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simplest eukaryotic organisms (their cells contain a nucleus)
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Fungi
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muti-celled, decomposers, and secrete all enzymes that digest food outside the body, then their cells absorb the released nutrients
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Plants
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mutli-celled, photosynthetic, producers
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Animals
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multi-celled consumers
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Mutations
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changes in DNA in which variations in most traits arise
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Natural selection
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the differential survival and reproduction of individuals in a population that differ in the details of their heritable traits
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Evolution
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change is occurring in a line of descent
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Critical thinking
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judging information before accepting it
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Science
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the systematic study of nature
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Supernatural
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anything that is beyond nature
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Hypothesis
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testable answer to your question
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Prediction
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a statement of some condition that should exist if the hypothesis is not wrong
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Scientific theory
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consistent with all evidence gathered to date and proves useful in helping us make predictions about other phenomena
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Experiments
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tests designed to support or falsify a prediction
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Variable
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some characteristic or event that differs among the individuals or systems and that may change over time
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Sampling error
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the difference between results from a subset and results from the whole
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Organic compounds
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contain carbon and at least one hydrogen atom
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Functional groups
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certain atoms or clusters of atoms covalently bonded to carbon
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Alcohols
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class of organic compounds that have one or more hydroxyl groups; dissolve fat
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Enzymes
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proteins that make reactions proceed faster than they would on their own
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Condensation
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two molecules covalently bond into a larger one
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Hydrolysis
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reverse of condensation; helps cells break large molecules into smaller ones
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Monomers
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subunits used to build larger molecules that are the structural and functional parts of cells
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Polymers
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larger molecules that are chains of three to millions of monomers
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Carbohydrates
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organic compounds that consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio
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Lipids
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fatty, oily, or waxy organic compounds that are insoluble in water
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Fatty acids
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simple organic compounds with a carboxyl group that is joined to a backbone of four to 36 carbon atoms
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Fats
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lipids with 1, 2, or 3 fatty acids that dangle like tails from a small alcohol called glycerol
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Triglycerides
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three fatty acid tails linked to glycerol; contain twice as much energy as glycogen
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Phospholipids
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polar head with a phosphate in it and two nonpolar fatty acid tails; most abundant lipids in cell membranes
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Waxes
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firm, water repellent lipids with long, tightly packed fatty acid tails bonded to long chain alcohols or carbon rings
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Sterols
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lipids with rigid backbone of four carbon rings and no fatty acid tails
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Protein
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organic compound composed of one or more chains of amino acids
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Amino acid
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small organic compound with an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and one or more atoms called an R group
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Peptide bond
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joins the amino group of one amino acid with the carboxyl group of another
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Polypeptide chain
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consists of several amino acids
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Denature
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secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure unravels
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ATP
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nucleotide that transfers the outermost phosphate to many other molecules and so primes them to react
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Coenzymes
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enzyme helpers that move electrons and hydrogen from one reaction site to another
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Nucleic acids
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single or double stranded chains of nucleotides
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DNA
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instructions encoded which starts cell life; adrenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine
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RNA
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single stranded and contains uracil instead of thymine
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Activation energy
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minimum amount of energy that will get a chemical reaction going
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Enzymes
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catalysts (molecules that make chemical reactions occur faster than they would on their own)
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Transition state
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the substance's bonds reach the breaking point and the reaction can run spontaneously to product
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Induced fit model
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substrate is almost but not quite complementary to the active site
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Concentration
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amount of a substance in a given volume
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Feedback inhibition
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an activity causes a condition to change, then the change itself stops the activity
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Cofactors
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atoms or molecules other than proteins that associate with enzymes and are necessary for their function
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Coenzymes
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organic cofactors
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Cell
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the smallest unit that shows the properties of life, which means it has a capacity for metabolism, homeostasis, growth, and reproduction
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Eukaryotic cell
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the interior is divided into various functional compartments, including a nucleus
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Prokaryotic cells
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smaller and simpler; none has a nucleus
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Plasma membrane
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cell's outer membrane that separates metabolic activities from events outside of the cell, but doesn't isolate the cell's interior
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Nucleus
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double-membrane sac that holds DNA
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Nucleoid
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region of cytoplasm in which the DNA inside prokaryotic cells is concentrated
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Cytoplasm
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semi fluid mixture of water, ions, sugars, and proteins between the plasma membrane and the region of DNA
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Ribosomes
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structures on which proteins are built
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Lipid bilayer
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structural foundation of all cell membranes
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Surface-to-volume ratio
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physical relationship that influences the cell shape and size; object's volume increases with the cube of its diameter but its surface area increases only with the square
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Cell theory
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all organisms consist of one or more cells; the cell is the smallest unit that retains the properties of life; each new cell arises from another cell
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Wavelength
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distance from the peak of one wave to the peak behind it
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Fluid mosaic model
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describes the organization of cell membranes; cell membrane is a mosaic - a mixed composition of phospholipids, sterols, proteins, and other components
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Transporters
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span all cell membranes and help specific solutes move across the bilayer
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Receptors
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trigger changes in cell activities by responding to signals or stimuli from the outside
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Recognition proteins
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identify a cell as self (belonging to one's body) or as nonself (foreign to the body)
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Adhesion proteins
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helps cells migrate to certain regions and then stay there
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Communication proteins
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form channels that allow substances or signals to flow freely across the plasma membranes of adjacent cells
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Cell wall
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rigid yet porous structure that surrounds the plasma membrane of nearly all prokaryotic cells
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Flagella
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slender cellular structures used for motion
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Pili
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protein filaments that project from the surface of some bacterial specimens and helps cells to cling or move across surfaces
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Biofilms
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single-celled organisms living together in a shared mass of slime; typically consists of multiple species
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Organelle
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structure that carries out a specialized function inside a cell
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Nuclear envelope
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outer boundary that consist of two lipid bilayers
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Nucleoplasm
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semifluid matrix that is surrounded by the nuclear envelope
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Nucleolus
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irregularly shaped region where ribosome subunits are assembled from proteins and RNA
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Chromosome
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double stranded molecule of DNA with attached proteins
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Chromatin
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name for all the chromosomal DNA and proteins in the nucleus
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Endomembrane system
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set of organelles in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells
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Golgi bodies
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enzymes inside modify polypeptide chains and lipids that vesicles have delivered from the ER
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Vesicles
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variety of small sac shaped organelles
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Lysosomes
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bud from the golgi bodies and take part in intracellular digestion
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Central vacuole
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a fluid filled interior that has amino acids, sugars, toxins, and ions
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Peroxisomes
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contain enzymes that digest fatty acids and amino acids and form and divide on their own
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Mitochondrion
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specialized in aerobic respiration, an oxygen requiring metabolic pathway that produces many ATP by breaking down organic molecules
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Chloroplasts
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tiny sugar factories that photosynthetic eukaryotic cells contain
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Primary wall
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formed by each cell by secreting strands of cellulose into the coating; allows the growing plant cell to enlarge
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Secondary wall
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when cells are mature, they stop enlarging and secrete material onto the primary wall's inner surface
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Lignin
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organic compound that makes up 25% or the secondary wall of cells
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Cuticle
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protective body covering made of cell secretions
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Extracellular matrix
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nonliving complex mixture of substances that is secreted by cells and varies with the type of tissues; supports and anchors cells, separates tissues, and functions in cell signaling
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Cell junctions
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structures that connect a cell to other cells and to the environment
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Cytoskeleton
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in between the nucleus and plasma membrane of all eukaryotic cells; interconnected system of many protein filaments; parts of the system reinforce, organize, and move cell structures
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Microtubules
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long, hollow cylinders consisting of many subunits of protein tubulin
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Microfilaments
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fibers that consist of subunits of the globular protein actin and they strengthen or change the shape of eukaryotic cells
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Cell cortex
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reinforcing mesh of plasma membrane
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Intermediate filaments
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the most stable parts of the cell's cytoskeletons; strengthen and maintain cell and tissue structures
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Motor proteins
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move cells parts in a sustained direction when they are energized by ATP
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Cilia
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whip like structures that propel cells through fluid
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Centriole
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barrel shape structure that gives rise to microtubules
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Pseudopods
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formed by amoebas and other eukaryotic cells as temporary, irregular lobes
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Endosymbiosis
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the symbiont lives inside a host and the interaction benefits one or both of them
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First law of thermodynamics
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energy cannot be created or destroyed
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Entropy
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measure of how much the energy in the universe has been dispersed
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Second law of thermodynamics
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if entropy decreases in one place, there will be a corresponding increase somewhere else
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Kilocalorie
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amount of energy it takes to heat 1,000 grams of water by 1C at a standard pressure
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Reactants
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molecules that enter a reaction
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Products
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molecules that remain at the end of the reaction
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ATP
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the main energy carrier in cells
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Phosphorylation
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when ATP donates a phosphate group to another molecule, it transfers energy that primes the recipient molecule to react
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ATP/ADP cycle
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when ATP gives up one of its phosphate groups, ADP forms; ATP forms again when ADP binds a phosphate group or inorganic phosphate by endergonic reaction
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Metabolic pathways
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sequences of enzyme-mediated reactions by which cells build, rearrange, or treat down substances
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Autotrophs
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producers - get carbon directly from carbon dioxide in their environment
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Heterotrophs
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consumers - get their carbon from organic compounds that autotrophs have already assembled
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Chemical equilibrium
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concentrations of reactants and products no longer change because the rate of reaction is the same in either direction
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Oxidation-reduction reactions
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electron transfers
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Electron-transfer chains
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membrane bound arrays of enzymes and other molecules that accept and give up electrons in an organized series of steps
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Concentration gradient
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difference in the number per unit volume of molecules of a substance between two adjacent regions; molecules tend to move from a region of higher concentration to one of lower
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Diffusion
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the net movement of like molecules or ions down a concentration gradient
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Electric gradient
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difference in electric charge between adjoining regions
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Pressure gradient
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difference in pressure per unit volume between two adjoining regions
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Selective permeability
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membrane allows some substances but not others to cross it
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Passive transport
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drive diffusion of a substance across a cell membrane, through a channel inside a transport protein
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Active transport
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a transport protein uses energy to pump a solute across a cell membrane, against its gradient
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Calcium pumps
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active transporters that move calcium ions across muscle cell membranes
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Sodium-potassium pump
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moves two substances at the same time
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Osmosis
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water molecules diffuse across a selectively permeable membrane in response to their concentration gradient
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Hypotonic fluid
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the fluid with the lower concentration of solutes when the solute concentrations differ
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Isotonic fluids
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has the same solute concentration
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Hydrostatic pressure (turgor)
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counters osmosis; pressure that a volume of fluid exerts against a cell wall, membrane, tube, or any other structure that holds it
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Osmotic pressure
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amount of hydrostatic pressure that can stop water from diffusing into cytoplasmic fluid or other hypertonic solution
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Exocytosis
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vesicle moves to the cell surface and the protein-studded lipid bilayer of its membrane fuses with the plasma membrane
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Endocytosis
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take substances near the cell's surface
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Bioluminescence
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light emitted from metabolic reactions in living organisms
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Photoautotrophs
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use light energy to build inorganic raw materials
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Pigment
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organic compound that selectively absorbs light of specific wavelengths
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Chlorophyll
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the main photosynthetic pigment in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria; absorbs violet and red light, so it appears green
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Cartenoids
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extend the range of wavelengths usable for photosynthesis
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Absorption spectrum
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graph that shows which wavelengths of light are absorbed by the substance of interest
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Chloroplast
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organelle that specializes in photosynthesis in plants and many protists
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Stroma
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a semi-fluid matrix
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Thylakoid membrane
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folded up in the stroma; has clusters of light-harvesting pigments
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Photosystems
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groups of hundreds of pigments and other molecules that work as a unit to begin the reactions of photosynthesis
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Light-dependent reactions
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light energy is converted to the chemical bond energy of ATP, water molecules are split apart, and the coenzyme NADP+ accepted the released hydrogen and electrons and becomes NADPH
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Light-interdependent reactions
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runs on energy delivered by the ATP and NADPH which drives the synthesis of glucose and other carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water
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Photolysis
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the process by which the energy of light breaks down a molecule
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Calvin-Benson cycle
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builds sugars in the stroma of chloroplasts; light-independent reactions; run on bond energy of ATP and reducing power of NADPH
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Carbon fixation
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the process of extracting carbon atoms from an inorganic source and incorporating them into an organic molecule
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Rubisco
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fixes carbon; attaches the carbon atom to a five-carbon molecule called ribulose biphosphate
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Stomata
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where gases diffuse into or out of the plant; small openings across the surface of leaves and green stems
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C3 plants
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they fix carbon with the Calvin-Benson cycle in which three carbon PGA is the first stable intermediate
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Photorespiration
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at high )s levels, rubisco attaches oxygen to RuBP in this pathway
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C4 plants
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four-carbon oxaloacetate forms first in carbon fixation reactions that run through two types of cells
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CAM plants
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two carbon fixing reactions are separated in time, rather than in space; they open their stroma at night and the products of the cycle are stores until the next day
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Fermentation pathways
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produce ATP under anaerobic conditions
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Aerobic respiration
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ATP forming pathway that uses oxygen
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Pyruvate
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organic compound with a 3-carbon backbone
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Glycolysis
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enzymes convert glucose to pyruvate
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Krebs cycle
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enzymes break down the pyruvate to carbon dioxide
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Electron transfer phosphorylation
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coenzymes give up electrons to electron transfer chains; the most ATP form here
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Substrate-level phosphorylations
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direct transfer of phosphate groups from a substrate to ADP
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Alcoholic fermentation
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3 carbon pyruvate is broken down
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Lactate fermentation
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converts pyruvate to 3-carbon lactate (lactic acid) and regenerates NAD+
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