Biological Oceanography Exam 2

Front 1

What is plankton?

Back 1

Organisms that live in the water column that are at the whim of currents, pelagic

Front 2

Types of plankton?

Back 2

1.) Phytoplankton
2.) Zooplankton

Front 3

What are the types of phytoplankton? (4)

Back 3

1.) Diatoms
2.) Dinoflagellates
3.) Coccolithophores
4.) Cyanobacteria

Front 4

What are the general characteristics of plankton? (5)

Back 4

1.) Small (Zooplankton range from .2 mm to 20 cm, phytoplankton range from .2 um to 200 um)
2.) Weak swimmers
3.) Dispersal controlled by physical processes
4.) Suffer high mortality (>99%)
5.) Live in a world of low Reynolds numbers (Re)

Front 5

Why do plankton have a high mortality rate?

Back 5

Currents can take them to where they don't want to end up

Front 6

What is the Reynolds number used for?

Back 6

1.) Marine organisms of different body sizes interact with the surrounding fluid differently (Plankton vs. whale shark)
2.) To understand how seawater affects locomotion of organisms of different sizes, we can calculate their Reynolds number (Re)

Front 7

What does Reynolds number represent?

Back 7

A dimensionless number that represents the ratio of inertial force to viscous force

Front 8

What is inertial force?

Back 8

Force under control by the organism

Front 9

What is viscous force?

Back 9

Thickness of the fluid versus the organisms movement

Front 10

What is the equation to calculate the Reynolds number?

Back 10

Re = density x size x velocity
---------------------------
viscosity

Front 11

What does the Reynolds number indicate?

Back 11

1.) At high Re, inertial force predominate
2.) At lower Re, viscous forces predominate

Front 12

Reynolds number for larger organisms? (3)

Back 12

1.) Larger organisms by virtue of size or high velocity or both move in a world of high Re
2.) With increase body size, fluid viscosity becomes less significant
3.) But, inertia becomes more important

Front 13

Why does inertia become more important?

Back 13

Inertia works in favor of a large animal by carrying it forward when it stops swimming; inertia imparts motion to the water

Front 14

Reynolds number for smaller organisms? (3)

Back 14

1.) Smaller organisms generally move in a world of low Re
2.) Inertia (and turbulence) are virtually non-existent
3.) Viscosity becomes important

Front 15

Based on this, the obstacles a larger animal swimming through sea water?

Back 15

Are very different from those of a smaller animal

Front 16

Marine phytoplankton are?

Back 16

Main primary producers in the ocean

Front 17

What are diatoms? (6)

Back 17

1.) Distributions: Dominate in temperate and polar regions (high latitudes)
2.) Evolved 100 mya
3.) Unicellular, 2 um to 100 um (microns)
4.) Occurs as single cells or in chains (reduce drag or sinking rates)
5.) Have a lot of chlorophyll
6.) Two morphologies: Penate (elongated) and centric (radial)

Front 18

Diatom skeletons? (4)

Back 18

1.) Possess an external skeleton (frustule) of silica consisting of two valves
2.) Silica makes up 4-50% of body weight
3.) Frustule exhibits species specific patterns (spines, pores, ribs, ect.)
4.) Seafloor deposits where more than 30% are diatom skeletal remains: diatomaceous ooze

Front 19

What is the external skeleton of a diatom called?

Back 19

Frustule

Front 20

What are the diatoms adaptations to reduce sinking? (3)

Back 20

1.) Larger surface relative to volume increases drag
2.) Produce and store oils, reduces cell density
3.) Living near the surface where waters are more turbulent

Front 21

Diatom life cycle?

Back 21

1.) Diatoms reproduce by fission with each parent valve going to each daughter
2.) After successive generations of cell division, cell size gets smaller and reaches a threshold at which they reproduce sexually

Front 22

What are diatom gametes called?

Back 22

auxospores

Front 23

What are dinoflagellates? (4)

Back 23

1.) Dominate subtropical and tropical phytoplankton; may be abundant during temperate summers
2.) Free-living in water column; mutual symbionts (Lack flagella) in many invertebrates (Zooxanthellae)
3.) Free living species have 2 flagella
4.) Two morphologies: With cellulose body plate (theca - most common) Lacking plates (naked)

Front 24

Some dinoflagellates cause?

Back 24

HAB's

Front 25

What are HAB's?

Back 25

Harmful Algae Blooms (Aka red tides)

Front 26

What causes HAB's?

Back 26

HAB's result from rapid population growth (Can reproduce by fission or asexual reproduction which leads to this rapid population growth)

Front 27

HAB's, some species have? (4)

Back 27

1.) Produce neurotoxins
2.) Classified as saxitoxins (The variety of neurotoxins in dinoflagellates)
3.) Enter the food web
4.) Have a pigment that can leech out into the water causing the red

Front 28

What is paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP)?

Back 28

Potentially fatal paralysis resulting from ingestion of shellfish containing saxitoxins

Front 29

What are coccolithophores? (2)

Back 29

1.) Found in tropical environments
2.) Single-celled flagellates covered by a mosaic of tiny calcareous (CaCO3) plates called coccoliths
3.) Can be quite abundant, blanketing the deep seafloor in some areas

Front 30

What are the tiny calcareous plates called?

Back 30

Coccoliths

Front 31

The White Cliffs of Dover?

Back 31

The cliffs are mainly composed of soft, white, chalk composed primarily of coccolithophores

Front 32

What are cyanobacteria? (4)

Back 32

1.) Part of Bacteria Kingdom
2.) Commonly called blue-green algae but they are not protists - they are bacteria
3.) Common in coastal and estuarine environments
4.) Not only are the photosynthetic, they can also fix nitrogen from the atmosphere, producing ammonium ion (NH4+)

Front 33

What is nitrogen fixation?

Back 33

Nitrogen in air cannot dissolve into sea water most primary producers need nitrogen, some primary producers can convert atmospheric nitrogen and put it in sea water

Front 34

All other phytoplankton except cyanobacteria are in what kingdom?

Back 34

Protista

Front 35

Cyanobacteria is in what kingdom?

Back 35

Bacteria

Front 36

What are the three domains?

Back 36

1.) Archaea
2.) Bacteria
3.) Eukarya

Front 37

What groups are in Archaea?

Back 37

thermophiles, halophiles

Front 38

Archaea likes?

Back 38

extreme conditions

Front 39

Based on this, thermophiles?

Back 39

Love heat and can tolerate extreme temperatures

Front 40

Based on this, halophiles?

Back 40

Love salt and can tolerate extreme salinities

Front 41

What groups are in Bacteria?

Back 41

Cyanobacteria, heterotrophic bacteria

Front 42

Heterotrophic bacteria?

Back 42

Can't photosynthesize, eat other things

Front 43

What groups are in Eukarya?

Back 43

Fungi, protists, animals, and plants

Front 44

What are the six kingdoms?

Back 44

Archaea, Bacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia

Front 45

Which of these kingdoms are prokaryotes?

Back 45

Archaea and Bacteria

Front 46

Prokaryotes are?

Back 46

Lack organelles and nucleus

Front 47

Which of these kingdoms are eukaryotes?

Back 47

Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia

Front 48

Eukaryotes are?

Back 48

Have organelles and nucleus

Front 49

Which domains contain primary producers?

Back 49

All of them, Archaea, Bacteria, Eukarya

Front 50

Which kingdoms contain primary producers?

Back 50

Archaea, Bacteria, Protista, Plantae

Front 51

What is primary production?

Back 51

Production of organic compounds (contain carbon) by primary producers

Front 52

Primary production provides?

Back 52

producers and heterotrophs energy for biochemical processes

Front 53

What is the chemical equation for primary production?

Back 53

inorganic compunds ---(energy source)--> organic compunds

Front 54

Organic compounds are synthesized by?

Back 54

Chemosynthesis or photosynthesis

Front 55

What is chemosynthesis?

Back 55

Energy derived chemical reactions from inorganic compounds to synthesize organic matter (Usually deep ocean)

Front 56

Chemosynthesis involves?

Back 56

Some bacteria and archaea

Front 57

Chemosynthesis is independent of?

Back 57

Independent of light energy

Front 58

In chemosynthesis energy is obtained by? (4)

Back 58

The oxidation of:
1.) Hydrogen sulfide (HS-) into sulfate (add oxygen)
2.) Metals from a reduced (Fe) to an oxidized form (Fe2O3)
3.) Hydrogen into water
4.) Methane into CO2 and water

Front 59

Chemosynthesis is?

Back 59

More widespread and important then realized

Front 60

Archaea inside organisms?

Back 60

Are the chemosynthesizing agents

Front 61

The organism uses?

Back 61

The energy released from the use of oxygen from the bacteria to help make organic compounds to help itself grow

Front 62

Photosynthesis is?

Back 62

Primary (1°) producers convert light energy into chemical energy by utilizing two inorganic compounds (CO2, H2O) to form carbohydrates and oxygen

Front 63

What is the chemical equations for photosynthesis?

Back 63

6CO2 (Readily dissolved) + 6H2O ---(visible light)--> C6H12O6 + 6O2

Front 64

What is the major reason primary producers do photosynthesis?

Back 64

For the sugars, O2 is a byproduct

Front 65

Light is captured by?

Back 65

Chloroplasts, which contain chlorophyll a and accessory pigments

Front 66

All primary producers have?

Back 66

Chlorophyll a but the accessory pigments vary (Chlorophyll b and c, xanthophyll, phycobilins)

Front 67

Why are accessory pigments needed?

Back 67

Chlorophyll a usually absorbs 400-650 nm, accessory pigments collect light energy at wavelengths at which chlorophyll a absorbs light poorly

Front 68

The energy collected by accessory pigments?

Back 68

Energy is transferred to chlorophyll a

Front 69

Each primary producer has?

Back 69

A different suite of pigments optimized to collect light energy available in its habitat

Front 70

This effects?

Back 70

Where primary producers will be located based on the light that can be absorbed

Front 71

What is extremely important in chlorophyll a?

Back 71

Nitrogen

Front 72

Why is nitrogen important?

Back 72

It is a trace element in sea water, hence depletion of available nitrogen stops production of organic compounds and limits primary production

Front 73

What happens to the carbohydrates in photosynthesis (Primary production)?

Back 73

Used by primary producers for their own growth, reproduction, and survival (Goes into cell walls, builds organelles)

Front 74

What is most of the carbohydrates used for?

Back 74

Most is used in primary producer respiration

Front 75

The rest of the carbohydrates?

Back 75

The rest (very small %) is converted to biomass and available to consumer

Front 76

These carbohydrates can be modified into?

Back 76

Fats (lipids), starches (store fats), oils, and cellulose (cell walls)

Front 77

When these carbohydrates are combined nutrients?

Back 77

Proteins, nucleic acids (used for DNA), and pigments can be made

Front 78

Name photosynthetic primary producers? (6)

Back 78

1.) Phytoplankton (Main primary producers)
2.) Benthic and floating algae (seaweeds)
3.) Seagrass (submerged flowering plant)
4.) Salt marsh grasses (not submerged, above high tide)
5.) Mangroves (Subtropical trees, woody plants that have adapted to very salty environments)
6.) Epiphytic algae (algae that grows on primary producers Ex. seagrass)

Front 79

What is epiphytic algae?

Back 79

Algae that grows on primary producers (Ex. seagrass)

Front 80

Nutrients are required for?

Back 80

Primary production

Front 81

What is a nutrient?

Back 81

A substance used in an organism's metabolism which is essential for growth and survival

Front 82

What are the two types of nutrients?

Back 82

1.) Macronutrients
2.) Micronutrients

Front 83

What are macronutrients?

Back 83

Nutrients that are needed in large amounts C, N, P, and Si (For diatoms)

Front 84

What are micronutrients?

Back 84

Nutrients that are needed in much smaller quantities Ca, Mg, K, Zn, Fe, ect...

Front 85

What is a limiting nutrients?

Back 85

Concentration is too low, limiting primary producer growth

Front 86

What are the most important limiting nutrients?

Back 86

Nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, silicate

Front 87

Nitrogen, phosphorus, and iron are also?

Back 87

Trace elements in seawater

Front 88

Nitrogen is the most?

Back 88

Most limiting nutrient in the ocean

Front 89

Nitrogen is needed for?

Back 89

Needed for pigments, proteins, and DNA

Front 90

Nitrogen can be found in sea water in which forms?

Back 90

Nitrate (NO3-), Nitrite (NO2-), and ammonium (NH4+)

Front 91

All of these forms of nitrogen are?

Back 91

Soluble in water, primary producers can uptake

Front 92

In respect to the forms of nitrogen, all phytoplankton?

Back 92

Have a preference with which they want to uptake

Front 93

Phosphorus can be found in which form in sea water?

Back 93

phosphate (PO4 3-)

Front 94

Iron is seawater is?

Back 94

Used in various functions to help uptake nitrogen

Front 95

Silicate can be found in which form in sea water?

Back 95

Silicate (H4SiO4)

Front 96

Silicate is very limiting?

Back 96

In higher latitudes and poles regions because of diatoms

Front 97

How do marine primary producers uptake nutrients?

Back 97

By diffusion

Front 98

This diffusion is?

Back 98

Concentration dependent

Front 99

Larger surface area (small volume) allows for?

Back 99

Greater uptake or diffusion

Front 100

With a larger surface area?

Back 100

Can come in contact with nutrients from all sides

Front 101

Phytoplankton size is an adaptation?

Back 101

To accessing the limited nutrients

Front 102

What are the main physical factors that control global primary production?

Back 102

1.) Light availability
2.) Nutrient availability

Front 103

Light availability?

Back 103

Decrease from the equator to the poles

Front 104

Nutrient availability?

Back 104

Tropics have less nutrients then poles, determined by physical processes controlling vertical mixing (upwelling, ect...)

Front 105

Both light availability and nutrient availability?

Back 105

Influence global productivity patterns

Front 106

In tropics regions?

Back 106

Year round high light intensity, but low nutrients due to permanent thermocline

Front 107

In polar regions?

Back 107

High in nutrients (high mixing) but low solar input (except for summer)

Front 108

In temperate regions?

Back 108

Moderate light intensity and nutrients; spring and fall mixing leads to higher productivity

Front 109

Which of these regions has the highest productivity?

Back 109

Temperate regions

Front 110

Vertical distribution of nutrients?

Back 110

N, P, and S all increase to the nutricline (Right at the thermocline) and then remain at a constant concentration

Front 111

Why are there low nutrients at smaller depths?

Back 111

Used by primary producers, uses nutrients that are there so they are used very quickly and depleted very low

Front 112

How does the vertical depth profile of phytoplankton and nutrient concentration vary?

Back 112

Varies season from season

Front 113

In winter?

Back 113

Phytoplankton spread apart, phytoplankton nutrients high in higher depths, nutrients availability constant at depths

Front 114

In early spring?

Back 114

Phytoplankton migrate near top, phytoplankton nutrients a lot near higher depths, nutrients decline at top then increase to constant

Front 115

In the summer?

Back 115

Phytoplankton all at top, Phytoplankton nutrients concentrated at top, nutrients extreme decline at top to a very slow increase to constant

Front 116

In the fall?

Back 116

Phytoplankton migrate back down in depth, phytoplankton nutrients slow decline in depth, nutrients very low at top and increase slowly to constant

Front 117

How does primary production change with depth?

Back 117

Increase after surface, then slowly declines with depth

Front 118

At the surface there is?

Back 118

Photoinhibition

Front 119

How does respiration change with depth?

Back 119

Respiration does not change with depth

Front 120

Will primary productivity and respiration equal out eventually?

Back 120

Yes at the compensation depth

Front 121

What is the compensation depth?

Back 121

The depth at which primary producers can produce only as much organic matter as they need for respiration

Front 122

At the compensation depth then?

Back 122

Photosynthesis = respiration

Front 123

The compensation depth (CD) varies?

Back 123

1.) Deep in clear water (Light can penetrate deeper)
2.) Shallow in turbid water (Light can't penetrate as deep)

Front 124

How can we measure primary productivity?

Back 124

One possible method:
Measure the amount of DO
Photosynthesis ^ DO
Respiration and decomposition \/ DO

Front 125

Photosynthesis can be measured?

Back 125

With paired light and dark bottles
Light bottles - Photosynthesis and respiration
Dark bottles - Respiration

Front 126

Primary productivity is?

Back 126

Defined as the rate of C production (rate of primary production or photosynthesis)

Front 127

Gross primary productivity (GPP) is?

Back 127

Total energy fixed or yielded by photosynthetic activity (Using most of this for own respiration and growth)

Front 128

Net primary productivity (NPP) is?

Back 128

Total energy accumulated in primary producers (as biomass) that is available to consumer

Front 129

So in all GPP equals?

Back 129

NPP + Respiration

Front 130

So in all NPP equals?

Back 130

GPP - Respiration

Front 131

Primary producers are?

Back 131

The foundations of food webs

Front 132

In a food web each level is called?

Back 132

A trophic level

Front 133

What are some general characteristics of marine zooplankton? (5)

Back 133

1.) Small (size range .2 mm to 20 mm, larger than phytoplankton)
2.) Weak swimmers capable of movement, but still at the whim of current
3.) Live in a world low Re
4.) High mortality (>99%)
5.) Heterotrophic

Front 134

Heterotrophic is?

Back 134

Require organic substrates as source of chemical energy

Front 135

Autotrophic is?

Back 135

Make own chemical energy

Front 136

Herbivores?

Back 136

Eating autotrophs

Front 137

Carnivores?

Back 137

Feeding on other animals or organisms

Front 138

Detritivores?

Back 138

Feeding on decaying or dead organisms

Front 139

Detritus?

Back 139

Decaying organic material

Front 140

Omnivores?

Back 140

Eating combination of algae and animal

Front 141

The two major plankton groups are based on?

Back 141

Grouping based on length of residency in pelagic environment

Front 142

Marine organisms usually spend?

Back 142

80% of marine organisms spend part of all of their life in the plankton

Front 143

What are the two major plankton groups?

Back 143

1.) Holoplankton
2.) Meroplankton

Front 144

Holoplankton?

Back 144

Spend their entire life in the plankton

Front 145

Meroplankton?

Back 145

Spend part of their life in the plankton, benthic or nekton as adults

Front 146

What is nekton?

Back 146

Live in pelagic environment but can counteract currents

Front 147

Groups of holoplankton (Protista)? (4)

Back 147

1.) Formanifera (aka forams)
2.) Radiolaria
3.) Ciliates
4.) Dinoflagellates (Heterotrophic)

Front 148

Formanifera? (5)

Back 148

1.) Marine amoebae
2.) Calcareous perforated (Little holes) test with chambers
3.) Captures bacteria with rhizopodia (extension of cytoplasm from perforations)
4.) Bioindicator species (Chemistry of shell can tell us chemistry of seawater)
5.) Foraminiferan ooze

Front 149

Radiolaria? (4)

Back 149

1.) Marine amoebae (Slightly larger than forams)
2.) Spherical skeleton of silica (glass-like apperance)
3.) Captures plankton with sticky axopodia
4.) Radiolarian ooze

Front 150

Ciliates? (3)

Back 150

1.) Possess cilia for locomotion (Some use cilia to also capture food-species dependent)
2.) Feeds on small plankton
3.) Most common group: tintinnids

Front 151

The most common group of ciliates, the tintinnids?

Back 151

Vase-like external shells of protein, when they die, they biodegrade, no ooze

Front 152

Dinoflagellates (Heterotrophic)?

Back 152

1.) Feeds on small plankton by flagellated-generated water currents
2.) Noctiluca often occurs at high densities (common)

Front 153

Most abundant, holoplankton invertebrates? (4)

Back 153

1.) Copepods
2.) Euphausiids (Krill)
3.) Pteropods (planktonic snails)
4.) Chaetognaths (arrow worms)

Front 154

Copepods?

Back 154

Some areas as much as 70% of biomass, have a median eye, swim with antennae

Front 155

Euphausiids (Krill)? (3)

Back 155

1.) Abundant near Antarctica (Southern Ocean)
2.) Commercially harvested
3.) Main food for baleen whales

Front 156

Pteropods (planktonic snails)? (4)

Back 156

1.) Thin calcareous shell (So thin, transparent)
2.) Modified foot ("wings"), uses to swim
3.) Aka "sea butterflies"
4.) Feed on plankton by a mucus web

Front 157

Chaetognaths (arrow worms)?

Back 157

1.) Transparent, elongated (4 cm)
2.) Carnivores, lay-and-wait ambush prey using oral hooks

Front 158

Gelatinous holoplankton? (3)

Back 158

1.) Cnidarians
2.) Ctenophores
3.) Salps

Front 159

Cnidarians?

Back 159

1.) Jellyfish (Palou, Jellyfish Lake, no stinging cells, no predators, so lost ability)
2.) Sea nettle

Front 160

Ctenophores?

Back 160

Comb jelly - don't sting, transparent

Front 161

Salps?

Back 161

Occur in colonies, use mucus to catch plankton

Front 162

Meroplankton?

Back 162

Temporary planktonic residence (larvae + juveniles), planktonic for a few minutes to several months, adults are benthic or nekton

Front 163

Most common meroplankton? (7)

Back 163

1.) Barnacles
2.) Turnicates
3.) Molluscs
4.) Annelids
5.) Coral
6.) Echinoderms
7.) Crustaceans

Front 164

Barnacles?

Back 164

1st stage - nauplius - few weeks
2nd stage - cypris

Front 165

Turnicates (Sea squirts)?

Back 165

Tadpole larval stage - few days or hours

Front 166

Molluscs (snail, bivalve)?

Back 166

Snail larva - veliger (not all snails have larval form)
Bivalve larva - veliger

Front 167

Annelids (segmented worms)?

Back 167

Larva - trochophore

Front 168

Coral?

Back 168

Larva - planula, find an empty space to settle down and develop into adult

Front 169

Echinoderms (brittle stars, sea stars, sea urchins)

Back 169

All have larval stage

Front 170

Crustaceans (crabs)?

Back 170

1st larval stage - zoea
2nd larval stage - megalops

Front 171

Meroplankton (Fish larva)?

Back 171

Longnose butterflyfish, chichlid, both nektonic - almost all fish are this, very few are planktonic whole life

Front 172

Types of planktonic development?

Back 172

1.) Planktotrophic larvae
2.) Lecithotrophic larvae

Front 173

Planktotrophic larvae? (6)

Back 173

1.) Feeding - mouth parts, guts, structures to help capture food
2.)Long dispersal duration (days - months, long so currents distribute them widely)
3.) Small in size
4.) Produced in large numbers by parent
5.) "Cheap" to produce
6.) Most common (~70% marine inverts have planktotrophic larvae, sea urchin - 20 mil gametes)

Front 174

Lecithotrophic larvae? (7)

Back 174

1.) Non-feeding - no mouth parts, or gut/nothing associated with feeding
2.) Supplied with energy from parents (yolk, fat)
3.) Short dispersal duration (hours - days)
4.) Relatively larger
5.) More expensive to produce
6.) Produced in small numbers
7.) Not as common (~15% of marine inverts, the last 15% is non-larval like eggs) (Ex. Sea squirts)

Front 175

Given that most marine organisms spend the larval phase in the plankton, what are some advantages of plankton development? (3)

Back 175

1.) Colonize new habitats, expand geographic range
2.) Exploit different resources (food and space), reduces competition (also between parent and offspring)
3.) Promotes genetic exchange, decreases inbreeding

Front 176

These advantages are offset by their high mortality which is caused by? (3)

Back 176

1.) Larval transport by physical processes (currents, too far offshore, this is the #1 reason of mortality)
2.) Finding enough to eat (plankton occurs in patches so may not be enough to eat)
3.) Predation

Front 177

Some examples of plankton predators? (7)

Back 177

1.) Sponges
2.) Barnacles
3.) Bivalves
4.) Jellyfish
5.) Atlantic herring
6.) Whale sharks
7.) Manta rays

Front 178

Many species possess anti-predator defenses such as? (3)

Back 178

1.) Behavioral
2.) Morphological
3.) Physiological

Front 179

Behavioral defenses? (3)

Back 179

1.) Larval release during periods of low predation (like at night - most fish can only see during the day)
2.) Diel vertical migration
3.) Passive sinking in response to predators

Front 180

Morphological defenses?

Back 180

1.) Possess spines, shells
2.) Be small, be transparent

Front 181

Physiological defenses?

Back 181

Bioluminescence - may scare predators

Front 182

Example of using defense to ward off predator?

Back 182

Marine polychaete flares its bristles in response to predators

Front 183

What is diel vertical migration (DVM)?

Back 183

Zooplankton move towards the surface at night and descend to deeper waters during the day

Front 184

During DVM, at night zooplankton?

Back 184

Must actively swim towards the surface, but passively sink downwards

Front 185

The first scientific observation of this were made by?

Back 185

The Challenger Expedition (1872 - 1875), copepods were only found in surface sample at night (Best time to do plankton tote at night)

Front 186

DMV occurs mainly in?

Back 186

Epipelagic (surface - 100m) and mesopelagic (200m - 1000m)

Front 187

Some copepods and jellyfish migrate as much as?

Back 187

400m per day

Front 188

Importance of DVM?

Back 188

1.) Enhance genetic exchange by mixing members of a population
2.) Facilitates the transport of organic materials that are produced in the euphotic zone to deeper areas
(DVM by zooplankton can actively transport carbon and nutrients is the Sargasso Sea)

Front 189

Why vertically migrate everyday? (3)

Back 189

1.) Avoid visual predators (But most zooplankton migrate far deeper than necessary to avoid predators)
2.) Conserve energy (Spend say in cooler waters, lower metabolic rates -not much known on energetic costs of migration, some copepods go to deeper water to lower energy expenditure after phytoplankton abundances decreases)
3.) Ascending to new plankton feeding area each night (but new area may have less food then the area occupied the night before)

Front 190

What is bioluminescence?

Back 190

Energy is released by a chemical reaction in the form of light emission

Front 191

Bioluminescence reactions involve? (3)

Back 191

1.) An oxidation of an organic molecule called luciferin
2.) Reaction is catalyzed by an enzyme (Protein that helps facilitate reaction) called luciferase
3.) Reaction product is light (hv) and the protein-bound oxyluciferin

Front 192

What is the overall chemical reaction of bioluminescence?

Back 192

Luciferin + O2 -- (luciferase) --> oxyluciferin + CO2 + hv

Front 193

Who does bioluminescence?

Back 193

More organisms than not bioluminesce

Front 194

Why can the light be produced in the animal?

Back 194

The light can be produced inside an animal because it does not require heat (or get hot), blue light is most visible but there are many colors

Front 195

Functional significance of bioluminescence? (4)

Back 195

1.) Mate location or form aggregations for reproduction
2.) Species recognition
3.) Lure or attract prey
4.) Predator defense

Front 196

What is nekton?

Back 196

Organisms that live in the water column that are capable of swimming counter to come ocean currents

Front 197

General characteristics of nekton? (3)

Back 197

1.) Larger in size
2.) Live in a world of high Re (viscosity matters less, inertia more important, when nekton stop swimming, they will not stop immediantly)
3.) They have swimming structures that allow them to move great distances
(Ex. cephalopods, bony fishes, cartilaginous fishes, marine mammals, sea turtles (reptiles))

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Phylum Mollusca, class cephalopoda?

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600 living species, includes octopods. squids, cuttlefish, nautili, and extinct ammonoids

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Octopods are?

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1.) Demersal - they move over the substrate using muscular and flexible arms, equipped with suction cups
2.) Only group that lack a shell (8 tentacles)

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Cuttlefish?

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Possess an internal porous cuttlebone used in buoyancy control (8 tentacles)

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Squid?

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Possess a internal "pen" that support body (8 tentacles)

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Nautilus (species name)?

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Possess 90 tentacles, only living cephalopods with external shell, shell is chambered and animal occupies largest chamber, others used in buoyancy control

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Ammonoids?

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First appeared ~400 Ma, became extinct in Cretaceous (65.5 Ma) along with dinosaurs, shell is calcified so good fossil history

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Cephalopods have an active lifestyle, how is this achieved? (3)

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1.) Swimming biology
2.) High concentration of ganglia (nerve cells) form a brain
3.) Possess closed circulation

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Swimming biology?

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Squids and cuttlefish use jet propulsion - expelling pf water from mantle cavity (Relax muscles, water rushes in cavity, contract muscles to force water out, move in "pulses")

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High concentration of ganglia form a brain?

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1.) Nervous tissue concentration exceeds any invertebrate
2.) Sophisticated visual eye (Complex eye, can see contrast very well)

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Possess closed circulation?

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1..) Blood is confined to vessels. allowing oxygen to get to tissues quickly (Oxygen can easily get transferred to tissues, need this for high activity)
2.) Allows for greater size, body volume, and rapid locomotion

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Sea turtles are? (6)

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1.) Reptiles
2.) Cold - blooded (reptiles)
3.) Egg laying (nesting behaviors)
4.) Has shell (Not all reptiles)
5.) Has scales called scutes (Various types which can help describe different species)
6.) Breathe air

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Sea turtles also?

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1.) Evolved from terrestrial ancestors (Earliest forms ~120 Ma)
2.) All sea turtle species are threatened or endangered

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Green sea turtle, Chelonia mydas? (6)

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1.) Scutes are not overlapping
2.) One pair of pre-frontal scutes (located between eyes)
3.) Small head, large body
4.) Herbivores: Eats seagrass (hence the name)
5.) Meat is edible and prized
6.) Global distribution (Atlantic, Pacific - subtropic, tropic locations)

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Major threat to sea turtles? (7)

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1.) Predators dig up nests
2.) Boat strikes
3.) Coastal development (Beach alteration - beach nourishment, lights - disorient hatchlings)
4.) Fishing lines and nets (TED - turtle exclusion device - turtle can escape through "hole" in net)
5.) By-catch (Only certain species of fish kept, rest thrown away)
6.) Marine plastics (Ex. plastics, fishing line)
7.) Disease (fibropapilomatosis - FP caused by virus, causes skin tumors)

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Marine mammals evolved?

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From terrestrial ancestors, based on bone morphology of pectoral fins

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Three major groups of marine mammals?

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1.) Cetacea - whales, dolphins, porpoises
2.) Pinnipeds - seals, sea lions, walruses, sea otters
3.) Sirenia - manatees, dugongs

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What are the two suborders of Cetacea?

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1.) Mysticeti: baleen whales
2.) Odontoceti: toothed whales

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Mysticeti? (4)

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1.) Baleen
2.) Feeding structure consisting of rows of baleen plates (with hairy edges) that hang down from upper jaw
3.) Filter zooplankton (euphausiids (krill), copepods, small fish)
4.) Feeding only occurs when prey are at high density (drag occurs when mouth is opened)

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Odontoceti? (3)

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1.) Teeth to capture prey (fish, squid, seal)
2.) Asymmetric skull (Right larger then left) designed for echolocation (generate high frequency clicks and sounds that bounce off prey; reflected sound tells them where prey is located (as well as obstacles))
3.) Great divers -they can restrict blood flow between lungs and rest of circulation to prevent storage of gas that might be released due to increasing pressure, they also do not breathe compressed air at great depths

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Bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops truncatus? (4)

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1.) Streamline, fusiform body - hydrodynamic (convergent evolution - evolving similar body design based on similar environmental conditions)
2.) Thick skin (10x thicker than humans), sloughed off every 2 hours
3.) Countershading - darker on top, lighter on the bottom
4.) Possess 80 - 100 cone shaped teeth, swallows food whole

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Pinnipedia?

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Hair, lack thick layer of fat, rear limbs modified as flippers (sea otter, sea lion, crab eater seal)

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Sirenia? (5)

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1.) Herbivores - feed on seagrass
2.) Shallow water environments, vulnerable to boat strikes and hunting
3.) Drink fresh water (Crystal river)
4.) Evolved from terrestrial mammals (closest relatives - elephants and hyraxes)
5.) Tail - paddle-like - manatees, fluke-like - dugongs (West Indian Manatee at St. Pete)

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All marine mammals are protected under?

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The Marine Mammals Protection Act (MMPA) of 1972

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The law?

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Prohibuts "take" in U.S. waters, "take" is defined as "to (to attempt to) harass, hunt, capture, or kill any marine mammal" (Even chasing or following)

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Marine fishes are?

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The largest nektonic group with >20,000 living species

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What are the major groups of marine fishes? (3)

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1.) Cartilaginous fishes (Chondrichthyes)
2.) Bony fishes (Osteuchthyes)
3.) Jawless fishes (Agnatha)

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Cartilaginous fishes?

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Sharks, skates, rays, skeleton is cartilage and not mineralized except for jawbone and vertebrae (Under immense pressure)

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Bony fishes?

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Mineralized skeleton with calcium phosphate and collagen mix (Most fishes)

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Jawless fishes?

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Lampreys, hagfish, elongated, eel-like

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General characteristics of marine fishes? (5)

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1.) Swimming efficiency - use undulatatory waves that past from front to rear, red muscle fibers for fast muscle contraction
2.) Streamlined body to reduce turbulence and drag
3.) High oxygen requirements due to rapid locomotion - gas exchange occurs over gill filaments, which are covered with thin lamellae to increase surface area (More surface area, more oxygen can be diffused)
4.) Some can achieve neutral buoyancy by changing chemical composition of body - low salt content of fluids, decrease body density (bony fishes), high lipid/fat content in liver, decreases bulk density (sharks)
5.) Some fishes have a swim bladder that absorbs and secretes gas to adjust depth (Absent - bottom dwelling fishes, sharks, rays, and mackerel)

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Many marine fish exhibit schooling behavior which is? (4)

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1.) Social organization with no leaders - leading edge ---> flank and vice versa
2.) Schools are sorted by size - size is related to swimming speed
3.) Behavior develops when fry (juveniles) reach a particular size
4.) Two sensory systems involved, vision and lateral line (detects movement, vibration)

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Why school? (4)

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1.) Reduces predation - confuses predator, dilution effect ("safety in numbers"), detect predators
2.) Aid in finding food - (Blue tang) increase success rate when everyone is looking for food
3.) Increase reproduction success (spawning fish)
4.) Improves hydrodynamics by increasing efficiency (except for ones in front, which won't be there for long anyway) - improves how water moves around organism