Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
142 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
|
What are elements? What 4 elements make up all living organisms? |
Pure substances Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen, & Hydrogen make up 98% of the body |
|
|
|
What do "alone" & "not alone" mean with respect to elements? |
"Alone"=pure form of an element "Not alone" = combined elements |
|
|
|
What is an atom? What are its 3 subatomic particles? |
An atom is the smallest unit of an element that has all the properties of that element. Has protons, neutrons, & electrons |
|
|
|
What are the charges of he subatomic particles? Where are ey located? |
Proton: positive (in nucleus) Neutron: neutral (nucleus) Electron: negative (electron orbital) |
|
|
|
The atomic number is determined by |
The number of protons in that atom |
|
|
|
Atomic mass is determined by |
The number protons + neutrons in that atom |
|
|
|
In a neutral atom, the # of electrons |
Equals the number of protons |
|
|
|
Trace elements are |
Elements found in very small % but are of great importance |
|
|
|
Isotopes are |
Atoms of the same element that have a different # of neutrons (I.e. C-12, C-13, C-14) |
|
|
|
Half-life is |
Time needed for 50% of atoms in a sample to decay |
|
|
|
A hydrogen bond |
Is an electrical attraction between hydrogen and some other element |
|
|
|
One H20 can bond to a maximum of |
4 other waters |
|
|
|
Functional Group (OH); in alcohols & sugars |
Hydroxyl Group |
|
|
|
Functional Group (PO4) |
Phosphate group |
in highly charged phospholipids & nucleic acids |
|
|
Functional group (S-H) |
Sulfhydryl |
found in proteins |
|
|
Functional Group (N-H); in proteins and amino acids |
Amino Group |
|
|
|
A compound is |
Two or more different atoms bonded chemically |
|
|
|
How many electrons can each shell hold? How many for each orbital? |
-1st shell: 2, 2nd shell: 8, 3rd shell: 8 (for biology purposes) -Each orbital holds max of two electrons |
|
|
|
Valence number is |
The number of electrons in the last energy level (shell) of an atom |
Carbon has 6 electrons, but its valence number is 4. |
|
|
What's an ion? What's the difference between a cation & anion? |
-an ion is an atom where the total number of electrons and protons don't equal, resulting in a net positive or negative charge -A cation is a positively charged ion. An anion is a negatively charged ion. |
|
|
|
What's a covalent bond? What's the difference between polar & nonpolar covalent? |
-a covalent bond involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms -Polar covalent is unequal sharing (I.e. H2O). Nonpolar is equal sharing. |
|
|
|
What's an ionic bond? |
An electrically charged attraction between oppositely charged ions |
|
|
|
Double bonds |
Are bonds involving four bonding electrons (2 electron pairs) instead of the usual two electrons (one pair) |
|
|
|
Why does water have positive and negative charges? Why is water polar? |
Oxygen has a higher electronegativity that Hydrogen. This causes the bonding electrons to be more attracted to the hydrogen, making the oxygen region slightly more negative & the hydrogen region more positive. |
Both of these questions really share the same answer. Think about the definition of polar bonding & how electronegativity relates to Oxygen & hydrogen. |
|
|
Distinguish between a solute and a solvent |
-The solute is what's being dissolved in a solution. The solvent dissolves the solute to form a solution. |
|
|
|
What's a solution? What's an aqueous solution? |
-A solution is a homogenous mixture of 2+ substances -An aqueous solution is a solution where the solvent is H2O |
"Aqueous" comes from the Latin word "aqua" meaning "water" |
|
|
How are cohesion & adhesion related to H2O? |
-Cohesion: water attracted to water (water drop) -Adhesion: water attracted to other substances (water attached to a pine needle) |
Both are properties of water and have to do with attraction, but there's a slight difference |
|
|
How is surface tension related to H2O? |
The relatively high attraction of H2O to each other causes each molecule to be pulled to each other, resulting in a surface "film" & no net movement of water |
Think of when you fill a glass to the brim with water & it doesn't spill |
|
|
What is heat of vaporization (of water)? |
Amount of energy needed to transform a given quantity of a substance from a liquid to a gas @ a given pressure |
|
|
|
What is the structure of ice? Why does it float? |
-crystal lattice structure -As water cools, the molecules have less energy & H bonding takes over. The water molecules form a crystal that makes the molecules space apart. This makes ice less dense that liquid water, so it floats. |
|
|
|
What's pH? Distinguish between an acid & a base |
-pH is a scale used to determine acidity or basicity of a solution. (Measure of the concentration of H+ ions in a solution) -Acid has a pH of less than 7. Base has a pH greater than 7. |
pH stands for "potential hydrogen" |
|
|
The equation for ionization of water is |
2H2O ---> H3O+ (+) OH- <--- |
|
|
|
Functional Group (COOH) |
Carboxyl |
Found in acids |
|
|
Functional Group (CH3) |
Methyl |
Nonpolar |
|
|
Functional Group (CO) |
Carbonyl |
Found in aldehydes & ketones |
|
|
Functional Group (COH) |
Aldehyde |
|
|
|
What are the four macromolecules? |
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids |
|
|
|
Macromolecules are synthesized from |
Monomers |
Single units that are called... |
|
|
Adding water is called |
Hydrolysis |
|
|
|
When monomers are bonded together, 1 _____ is removed. His process is called |
Water; dehydration synthesis |
|
|
|
The Carbon/Hydrogen/Oxygen ratio for carbohydrates is |
1:2:1 |
Think of glucose (C6H12O6) |
|
|
Simple sugars are called______; 2 of these bonded together are ______; many of these bonded together are_____ |
Monosaccharides; disaccharides; polysaccharides |
|
|
|
Starches are examples of _______; they are mainly used for_____ |
Polysaccharides; storage |
|
|
|
What's the difference between alpha glucose and beta glucose? |
-in alpha glucose, the OH's on the first & fourth carbon point in the same direction. In beta glucose, they point differently. |
|
|
|
The monomer for polysaccharides is |
An amino sugar |
Chitin would be an example of this |
|
|
These macromolecules are insoluble in water |
Lipids |
|
|
|
The monomer for a lipid is |
A fatty acid |
A.k.a. a long hydrocarbon chain plus a carboxyl group |
|
|
What's the difference between saturated and unsaturated fats? |
Saturated has no double bonds, solid at room temp & tend to be animal products. Unsaturated has 1+ double bonds, are liquid at room temp & are plant based (olive, corn oil |
3 main differences |
|
|
Name functions of fats |
-Long term storage of energy -insulators -form membranes -steroids |
|
|
|
Phospholipids have |
1 glycerol, 2 fatty acids & a phosphate |
|
|
|
Triglycerides consist of |
A glycerol & 3 fatty acids |
|
|
|
Functional Group (COO) |
Ester |
|
|
|
The protein monomer is |
An amino acid |
|
|
|
Dipeptide means |
Two amino acids |
|
|
|
The primary structure of a protein |
Is the precise order of amino acids in a polypeptide chain |
|
|
|
The secondary structure of a protein |
Is the alpha-helix & beta-pleated sheet |
|
|
|
The tertiary structure of a protein |
Takes the helix sheet & folds back on itself |
|
|
|
The quarternary structure of a protein |
Is 2 polypeptide chains bonded together |
|
|
|
Denaturation is |
The process when proteins lose their confirmation (or fall apart) |
Can be caused by temp increase and pH change |
|
|
Protein functions include |
Structural (hair, tendons); antibodies, storage, transport oxygen, enzymes, & movement |
|
|
|
Why can lipids store 2x as much energy as carbs? |
Because of their many C-H bonds (more H on a C = more energy) |
|
|
|
The monomer of a polynucleotide is |
A nucleotide |
|
|
|
A nucleotide consists of |
A 5 carbon sugar + a nitrogen base + 2 or 3 phosphates |
|
|
|
The cell theory states |
-the cell is the smallest unit of life -cells arise only from other cells |
2 things; concept by Schleiden & Schwann |
|
|
What's the main differences between prokaryotes & eukaryotes? |
-Prokaryotes have no nucleus, membrane bound organelles & one molecule of DNA. -Eukaryotes have nucleus, M.B. organelles & more than 1 chromosome |
|
|
|
What limits the size of a cell |
The surface area to volume ratio |
|
|
|
What is usually the largest feature of a cell |
Nucleus |
Contains genetic material & only found in run at totes |
|
|
Chromosomes are the ______ form of _______ |
Condensed; chromatin |
|
|
|
Every cell needs _____ because they are the site of______ |
Ribosomes; protein synthesis |
Can be in free or attached form. "Free" makes proteins for the cell & the "attached" make proteins for export |
|
|
Smooth ER |
Synthesizes lipids, steroid hormones, can detoxify drugs in the liver |
|
|
|
In the _____side of the Golgi body, proteins enter thru vesicles. In the ______ side, modified proteins exit |
Cis; trans |
|
|
|
What are 3 places you can find DNA in the cell? |
Nucleus, Mitochondrion, Chloroplast |
|
|
|
The main function of the mitochondrion |
Is to produce most of the energy for the cell in the form of ATP |
|
|
|
Peroxisomes |
Detoxify alcohol, digest nucleotides & lipids |
|
|
|
These are found only in plants & some protists. They produce ______ & ______ & contain several pigments. |
Chloroplasts; sugar from CO2 & oxygen |
Main pigment is chlorophyll |
|
|
The "suicide bag" of the cell; digests food, foreigners & bacteria & participates in apoptosis |
Lysosome |
|
|
|
Acts as a storage space; large in plant cells and small in animal cells |
Vacuole |
|
|
|
Located only in plants (seeds) and responsible for the conversion of fats to carbs |
Glyoxysome |
|
|
|
3 elements of the cytoskeleton |
Microtubules, intermediate filaments, microfilaments |
|
|
|
Cilia & flagella both function in _______. In flagella, there is a ______arrangement of microtubules. |
Movement; "9 and 2" |
|
|
|
Name the 3 types of cell junctions |
-desmosomes (weld 2 cells together two resist mechanical stress) -tight junction (prevents fluid leakage) -gap junction (cell cell communication) |
|
|
|
What affects fluidity? |
-amount of unsaturated phospholipids (increase in unsat phospho. = increase in fluidity) -increase in temp = increase in fluidity -increase in cholesterol = increase in fluidity |
|
|
|
Channel proteins are called ______. |
Aquaporins |
|
|
|
Two types of transport. _______ requires no ______ while ______ requires ______? |
Passive requires no energy while active requires energy. |
|
|
|
Differentiate between Brownian motion, diffusion & osmosis. |
-Brownian motion: molecules move & collide at random with no net movement -Diffusion: movement of molecules from region of high to low concentration -Osmosis: diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane |
|
|
|
Water always moves from ____tonic to ____tonic area |
Hypo to hyper |
|
|
|
Has a protein and favorable concentration gradient; requires no energy |
Facillated diffusion |
|
|
|
Na+/K+ pump is a carrier protein that keeps cell membranes |
Polarized |
|
|
|
Types of endocytosis |
-Phagocytosis: engulfing bigger particulates -Pinocytosis: smaller particulates: dissolves substances |
|
|
|
Exocytosis |
Substances exit the cell |
|
|
|
Define metabolism, anabolism, catabolism. |
Metabolism: chemical reactions Anabolism: build up of molecules, requires Energy Catabolism: break down of molecules, release Energy |
|
|
|
Exergonic v Endergonic |
-exergonic reactions release energy (release Hydrogen) & has negative delta G -endergonic require energy (add H), positive delta G |
|
|
|
Reduction vs Oxidation |
Reduction: requires energy; adds H to C Oxidation: releases energy |
|
|
|
Coupled reactions |
Supply energy to reactions |
|
|
|
Coenzymes are |
Electron acceptors & donors |
They're not enzymes by the way. |
|
|
Catalysts are ______. And how do they accomplish their function?? |
Enzymes that speed up chemical reactions; they do this by lowering the activation Energy of a reaction |
|
|
|
A substrate binds at |
The active site |
|
|
|
What can influence enzyme activity? |
Temperature, pH, inhibitors (competitive & noncompetitive; reversible & irreversible) |
|
|
|
What is cell respiration? |
How we extract enrergy from food molecules |
|
|
|
What's the formula for cell respiration? Which reactant is being reduced? Oxidized? |
C6H12O6 + 6O2 ---> 6H2O + 6CO2 + 38 ATP -C6H12O6 (glucose) is oxidized & 6O2 (oxygen) is reduced |
|
|
|
What are the steps of cell respiration ? Where do they occur? |
1) Glycolysis (cytoplasm) 2)Connecter (mitochondrion) 3) Krebs (mitochondrial matrix) 4) ETS (mitochondrial membrane) 5) oxidative phosphorylation (everywhere except outer membrane space) |
|
|
|
The final electron acceptor in respiration is |
Oxygen (1/2 O2) |
|
|
|
The idea of the proton gradient was introduced through the |
Mitchell hypothesis |
|
|
|
ATP can be made through |
Oxidative & substrate phosphorylation |
2 ways |
|
|
Cell respiration can be controlled through |
Feedback inhibition |
|
|
|
Fermentation occurs when______. Name the two types. |
-when no Oxygen present. Alcohol & lactic acid fermentation. |
|
|
|
Which muscle (red or white) is designed for he "sprinters" (I.e. short bursts of activity) |
White muscle |
|
|
|
What is photosynthesis? |
How plants reduce CO2 to make sugars & produce oxygen from water. |
|
|
|
What's the equation for photosynthesis? Which reactant is reduced? Oxidized? |
6CO2 + 6H2O ------> C6H12O6 + 6O2 sunlight 6CO2 is reduced. 6H2O is oxidized. |
|
|
|
Scientist _______ took a willow sappling tree & figured out that the plants weight came from _______ |
Von Helmont; CO2 & H2O |
|
|
|
What are the 2 phases of photosynthesis? |
-light-dependent -light-independent (Calvin) |
|
|
|
Photo systems are _________. At the center is a _____ made of _____ |
Clusters of 200-300 pigment molecules; has a reaction center in the middle that is made of a special chlorophyll a |
|
|
|
The light dependent phase is also known as |
-the Z-scheme -non cyclic photophosphorylation |
|
|
|
ADP is phosphorylated thru |
Chemiosmosis |
|
|
|
What is the goal of mitosis? |
1 somatic cell gives rise to 2 identical daughter cells |
|
|
|
Mitosis is division of the ______. Cytokinesis is the division of the _______. |
Nucleus; cytoplasm |
|
|
|
When is DNA replicated? |
S phase |
|
|
|
Sister chromatids separate & go to opposite poles during |
Anaphase |
|
|
|
Chromosomes condense into chromatin during |
Telophase |
|
|
|
The diff between cytokinesis between animal & plant cells is |
-animals cells go through cleavage furrow & plant cells form cell plates |
|
|
|
Cell division in prokaryotes is called |
Binary fission |
|
|
|
What is the goal of meiosis? |
To produce gametes ( egg& sperm) through cell division |
|
|
|
Where can genetic diversity occur? |
Prophase I: crossing over Anaphase I: Independent assortment Anaphase II: independent assortment Fertilization |
4 places |
|
|
One primary spermatocyte produces |
4 spermatid gametes |
|
|
|
One primary oocyte yields |
One ovum & 3 polar bodies |
|
|
|
Gregor Mendel used _____ to determine_____ |
Garden pea plants; principles og inheritance |
|
|
|
Law of segregation states |
When gametes form, they carry one allele for a trait |
|
|
|
Law of independent assortment states |
Alleles for several traits assort independently when gametes made |
|
|
|
Incomplete dominance is when |
Neither allele is fully "expressed" in the presence of other allele |
|
|
|
Co-dominance is when |
Both alleles are fully expressed |
|
|
|
Polyenic traits are |
when 3 genes affect 1 trait |
|
|
|
A karyotype |
Examines the physical structure and number of chromosomes |
|
|
|
Linked genes |
Genes (a) & (b) are on different chromosomes |
|
|
|
Recombination frequency equals |
The # of recombinant offspring ________________________________ x 100 total number of offspring |
|
|
|
Griffith's experiment involved |
2 strains of streptococcus & concluded something in the heat killed S strain transformed the living R strain |
|
|
|
Hershey & Chase's experiment involved |
Virus bacteriophage & e.coli; e.coli went with phosphorus |
|
|
|
Chargaff's rule |
A=T, C=G |
|
|
|
Franklin found that |
DNA was a right handed helix |
|
|
|
Watson & Crick found |
DNA was a double helix |
|
|
|
Helicase |
Unwinds the DNA helix |
|
|
|
Differentiate between DNA poly I & DNA poly III |
Polymerase III - adds new nucleotide in 5' > 3' direction Polymerase I-replaces RNA primers with DNA |
|
|
|
Ligase |
Seals gaps in okasaki fragments |
|
