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104 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Name four functions of the integumentary system.
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1. Protection
a. chemical barriers b. physical/mechanical barriers c. biological barriers 2. Body Temp Regulator 3. Cutaneous Sensation 4. Metabolic Functions 5. Blood Reservoir 6. Excretion |
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What is keratin?
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Fibrous protein that helps give the epidermis its protective properties.
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Name the five layers of the epidermis?
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Stratum Corneum
Stratum Lucidum Stratum Granulosum Stratum Spinosum Stratum Basale |
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Describe the stratum basale.
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Deepest epidermal layer, attached to underlying dermis, mostly a single row of cells, can contain melanocytes and merkel cells.
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Describe the stratum spinosum.
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Several layers thick, weblike system of intermediate filaments, can find keratinocytes, melanin granules and langerhans cells.
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Describe the stratum granulosum.
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Usually 3-5 cell layers, many granules, cells flatten as organelles and nuclei begin to disintegrate.
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Describe the stratum lucidum.
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Appears as a thin translucent band above stratum granulosum, few rows of clear, flat, dead keratinocytes, visible only in thick skin (but not all thick skin slides.)
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Describe the stratum corneum.
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20-30 cell layers thick, up to 75% of total epidermis thickness, protects deeper layers.
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Name the layers of the dermis.
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Papillary and reticular layers.
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Describe the papillary layer.
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Thin superficial layer of dermis, made of areolar connective tissue, forms peglike projections called dermal papillae, contains pain receptors (meissners corpuscles) and capillary loops.
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Describe the reticular layer.
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About 80% of dermal thickness, dense irregular connective tissue, contains blood vessels, glands and nerve receptors.
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What is a Meissner's corpuscle?
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Small receptors in which a few spiraling sensory terminals are surrounded by Schwann cells and then by a thin egg-shaped connective tissue capsule. Meissner's corpuscles are found just beneath the epidermis in the dermal papillae and are especially numberous in sensitive and hairless skin areas such as the nipples, fingertips, and soles of the feet. They are receptors for descriminative touch, and apparently play the same role in light touch reception in hairless skin as do the hair follicle receptors in hairy skin.
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What is a Pascinian corpuscle?
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Also called lamellated corpuscles, are skattered deep in the dermis, and in subcutaneous tissue underlying the skin. They are stimulated by deep pressure but only respon when the pressure if first applied, and thus are best suited to monitoring vibration. They are the largest corpuscular receptors. In section, they resemble a cut onion. Egg-shaped.
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What is a Langherhan cell?
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Star-shaped cells arise from bone marrow and migrate to the epidermis. Also called epidermal dendritic cells, they are phagocytes that ingest foreign substances and help to activate our immune system. Their slender processes extend among the surrounding keratinocytes, forming a more or less continuous network.
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What are melanocytes and melanin?
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Melanocytes are the spider shaped epithelial cells that synthesize the pigment melanin. They are found in the deepest layer of the epidermis. As melanin is made it is accumulated in membrane-bound granules called melanosomes that are moved along actin filaments by motor proteins to the ends of the melanocyte's processes from where they are taken up by nearby keratinocytes. The melanin granules accumulate on the superficial side of the keratinocyte nucleus, forming a pigment shield that protects the nucleus from the damaging effects of UV radiation in sunlight.
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What are keratinocytes?
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The chief role of keratinocytes is to produce keratin. Tightly connected to one another by desmosomes, the keratinocytes arise in the deepest part of the edpidermis from a layer of cells that undergo almost continuous mitosis. By the time that they reach the surface of the skin, they are dead, scalelike structures used for protection.
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What is a sebaceous gland?
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Sebaceous glands produce oil that lubricates the skin and kills bacteria. Most of these have ducts that empty into hair follicles. These glands are mostly activated at puberty.
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What is a eccrine gland?
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Sweat gland widely distributed in skin, has open duct to pores on skin surface.
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What is an apocrine gland?
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Sweat gland widely distributed in skin, ducts empty hair follicles, secretes fatty acids and proteins as well.
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What is the function of sweat?
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Composed of water and some metabolic wastes, helps to dissipate excess heat, acidic nature inhibits bacteria growth. Odor is actually from bacteria that feasts on the sweat.
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What is a sudoriferous gland?
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Another name for a sweat gland.
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What is basal cell carcinoma?
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Least malignant and most common cancer, arises from the stratum basale, slow growing, shows up on sun exposed skin.
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What is squamous cell carcinoma?
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Arises from keratinocytes in stratum spinosum, usually found on head and hands, grows more rapidly than basal form.
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What is melanoma?
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Cancer of the melanocytes, most dangerous skin cancer, can happen whereever there is skin pigment, metastisizes rapidly to blood and lymph.
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What are the ABC's of skin cancer?
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A. Asymmetry
B. Border Irregularity C. Color D. Diameter E. Elevation All refer to diagnosing moles as melanoma. |
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What is a hair follicle?
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Folding of epidermal layer of skin into the dermal layer, produces hair by using the hair bulb in center.
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What is a hair?
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Consists of hard keratinized epithelial cells, melanocytes provide pigment for hair color.
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What is the muscle that controls hair?
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Arrector pili muscle, is a smooth muscle.
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What is the difference between first, second, and third degree burns?
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The difference between the burns is the depth of the burn. 1st only epidermis is damaged, 2nd epidermis and upper dermis are damaged, 3rd destroys entire skin layer.
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What is the rule of 9s?
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Division of the body into segments to determine the % of skin affected. Each arm is 9% front and back, each leg 18% f/b, torso 18% f and 18% b, head 9% f/b, perineum is last 1%.
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How does melanin color the skin?
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Pigment produced by melanocytes, color is yellow to brown to black, found in stratum basale, amount produced depends on genetics and sun exposure, protects the activity of dividing cells, made of tyrosine amino acids, freckles and moles are local accumulations of melanin.
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How does carotene color the skin?
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Yellow to orange pigment found in certain plants, tends to accumulate in the stratum corneum and in fatty tissue.
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How does hemoglobin color the skin?
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Pinkish hue of fair skin reflects the crimson color of oxygenated hemoglobin in the red blood cells in dermal capillaries, caucasian skin contains small amounts of melanin so epidermis is nearly transparent and allows hemoglobin color to show through.
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What are the major functions of bone?
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Support of the body, protection of soft organs, movement due to attached skeletal muscles, storage of minerals and fats, blood cell formation.
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What are osteoclasts?
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Large cells that resorb or break down bone matrix
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What are osteoblasts?
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Bone-forming cells.
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What is hyaline cartilage and where can it be found in the skeleton?
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Looks like frosted glass when freshly exposed, provides support with flexibility and resilience, most abundant skeletal cartilage, articular cartilage found on bone ends in joints, costal cartilages found between ribs, respiratory cartilage makes up larynx, nasal cartilages support external nose.
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What is elastic cartilage and where can it be found in the skeleton?
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Similar to hyaline cartilage but more elastic fibers, better able to stand up to repeated bending, found only in external ear and the epiglottis.
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What is fibrocartilage and where can it be found in the skeleton?
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Higly compressible and have great tensile strength, found in knee menisci and intevertebral discs.
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What is the difference between appositional and intersitial growth?
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Intersitial growth is long bones lengthening at the epiphyseal plates. Appositional growth is growth in thickness of the bone.
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What is the composition of bone?
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Both organic and inorganic, osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts, osteoid - ground substance and collagen fibers, inorganic hydroxyapatites/mineral salts - calcium phosphates.
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How are bones classified?
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On the basis of shape: long bones, short bones, flat bones, irregular bones.
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What are the two major divisions of the skeleton?
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Axial and appendicular skeletons.
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What is a sesamoid bone?
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Special type of short bone that form in a tendon. They vary in size and number in different individuals. Some clearly act to alter the direction of pull of a tendon; the function of others is not know.
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What is a wormian bone?
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Extra bone pieces that occur within a suture of the cranium.
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What is a diaphysis?
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Forms the long axis of the bone. It is constructed of a relatively thick collar of compact bone that surrounds a central medullary/marrow cavity.
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What is an epiphysis?
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The bone ends. Often more expanded/wide than diaphysis. Compact bone exterior and spongy interior. Joint surface is covered with thin layer of articular hyaline cartilage.
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What are the epiphyseal plate and line?
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Between the diaphysis and each epiphysis of an adult long bone is an epiphyseal line, a remnant of the epiphyseal plate, a disc of hyaline cartilage that grows during childhood to lengthen the bone. Sometimes called the metaphysis.
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What is the periosteum?
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The external surface of the entire long bone except the joint surfaces is covered by a glistening white, double-layer membrane called the periosteum. The outer fibrous layer is dense irregular connective tissue. The inner osteogenic layer consists primarily of osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Secured to underlying bone by perforating Sharpey's fibers. Provides anchoring points for tendons and ligaments.
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What are Sharpey's fibers?
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Tufts of collagen fibers that extend from the periosteum into the bone matrix. Places where tendons and ligaments attach into the periosteum they Sharpey's fibers are exceptionally dense.
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What is the endosteum?
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Internal bone surface covering made of delicate connective tissue membrane. Covers the trebacule of spongy bone and lines the canals that pass through the compact bone. Contains osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
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What is the structure of a flat bone?
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Non-long bones all consist of thin plates of periosteum-covered compact bone on the outside and endosteum-covered spongy bone within. They have no shaft or epiphyses. In flat bones the spongy bone is called diploe and the whole arrangement resembles a stiffened sandwich.
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What is hematopoietic tissue and where is it found in an infant and in an adult?
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Red marrow. It is usually found in the diaphysis and all areas of spongy bone in infants. It is found in the heads of the femur, humerus, and the diploe of flat bones in adults.
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What is the difference between red marrow and yellow marrow?
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Yellow marrow is mostly fat, red marrow is used for blood cell formation - hematopoiesis.
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Describe the formation of a long bone.
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1. Cartilage model of bone forms during embryonic development. 2. Chondrocytes hypertrophy in calcified matrix. 3. Stem cells in the perichondrium differentiate into osteoblasts - deposit matrix of bone collar. 4. Simultaneously nutrient artery invades calcified matrix and releases fibroblasts that differentiate into osteoblasts. 5. Osteoblasts deposit matrix that becomes spongy bone in primary ossification center of diaphysis. 6. Spongy bone is remodeled by osteoclasts. 7. Nutrient arteries invade epiphysis and form secondary ossification centers.
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What is bone remodeling?
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Bone deposit and bone resorption occur both at the surface of the periosteum and the surface of the endosteum. Together the two processes constitute bone remodeling.
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What is the role of calcitonin in bone remodeling? Where is it produced?
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It is secreted when blood calcium levels rise, inhibits bone resorption and encourages calcium salt deposit in bone matrix, effectively reducing blood calcium levels. Calcitonin is produced in the thyroid gland.
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What is the role of parathyroid hormone in bone remodeling? Where is it produced?
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PTH is released when blood levels of ionic calcium decline. The increased PTH level stimulates osteovlasts to resorb bone, releasing calcium to the blood. Parathyroid hormone is produced in the parathyroid glands.
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What other hormones play a role in the growth of bones?
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In infancy and childhood, the most important stimulus of epiphyseal plate activity is growth hormone released by the anterior pituitary gland. At puberty male and female sex hormones are released promoting the growth spurt of adolescence as well as the sex defining characteristics of the skeleton.
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Describe a comminuted fracture.
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Bone fragments into three or more pieces. Particularly common in the aged, whose bones are more brittle.
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Describe a spiral fracture.
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Ragged break occurs when excessive twisting forces are applied to a bone. Common sports fracture.
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Describe a compression fracture.
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Bone is crushed. Common in porous bones (ie osteoporotic bones) subjected to extreme trauma such as in a fall.
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Describe a greenstick fracture.
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Bone breaks incompletely, much in the way a green twig breaks. Only one side of the shaft breaks; the other side bends. Common in children, whose bones have relatively more organic matrix and are more flexible than those of adults.
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Describe an epiphyseal fracture.
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Epiphysis separates from the diaphysis along the epiphyseal plate. Tends to occur where cartilage cells are dying anc calcification of the matrix is occuring.
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Describe a depressed fracture.
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Broken bone portion is pressed inward. Typical of a skull fracture.
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How are bone fractures repaired?
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Fracture is reduced by medical professional. Bone goes through four stages of repair. 1. Hematoma formation. 2. Fibrocartilage callus formation. 3. Bony callus formation. 4. Bone remodeling.
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What is osteomalacia?
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Osteomalacia includes a number of disorders in which the bones are inadequately mineralized. Osteoid is produced, but calcium salts are not deposited, so bones soften and weaken. The main symptom is pain when weight is put on the affected bones.
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What is rickets?
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Rickets is similar to osteomalacia but affects children. Because young bones are still growing rapidly, rickets is much more severe than adult osteomalacia. Bowed legs and deformities of the pelvis, skull, and rib cage are common. Because the epiphyseal plates cannot be calcified, they continue to widen, and the ends of long bones become visibly enlarged and abnormally long.
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What is osteomyelitis?
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Osteomyelitis is an acute or chronic bone infection, usually caused by bacteria. In children, the long bones are usually affected. In adults, the feet, vertebrae, and the pelvis are most commonly affected.
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What is Paget's disease?
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Characterized by excessive and haphazard bone deposit and resorption. The newly formed bone, is hastily made and has an abnormally high ratio of spongy bone to compact bone.
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What is osteoporosis?
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Osteoporosis refers to a group of diseases in which bone resorption outpaces bone deposit. The composition of the matrix remains normal but bone mass is reduced, and the bones become porous and light.
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Describe a first class lever and give an example in the body.
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In first class levers, the effort is applied at one end of the lever and the load is at the other, with the fulcrum somewhere between. Example in the body is the jaw opening. Load is the jaw, fulcrum is the tempromandibular joint, effort is the posterior neck muscles.
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Describe a second class lever and give an example in the body.
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In second class levers, the effort is applied at one end of the lecer and the fulcrum is located at the other, with the load between them. Example in the body is stepping on your toes. Load is the weight of the body, fulcrum is the balls of the feet/toes, and effort is the calf muscles.
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Describe a third class lever and given an example in the body.
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In third class levers the effort is applied between the load and the fulcrum. Example in the body is most skeletal muscles for example the biceps brachii lifting the forearm. This lever is always at a mechanical disadvantage.
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How does a lever work?
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A lever allows a given effort to move a heavier load, or to move a load further or faster, than it otherwise could. Regardless of type, all levers follow the same basic principle: effort farther than load from fulcrum = mechanical advantage; effort nearer than load to fulcrum = mechanical disadvantage.
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Describe the axial skeleton.
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Structured from 80 bones segregated into three major regions: the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage. This part of the skeleton supports the head, neck, and trunk, and it protects the brain, spinal cord, and the organs in the thorax.
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Describe the appendicular skeleton.
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Bones of the limbs and their girdles. Enables us to carry out the movements typical of our freewheeling and manipulative lifestyle.
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What is the purpose of the paranasal sinuses?
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Lighten the skull and enhance the resonance of the voice.
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What is the chondrocranium?
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The cartilaginous cranium of an embryo before ossification occurs.
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How does the skull develop?
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Through intramembranous ossification.
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What becomes of the gill arches?
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The gill arches become both bones of the cranium as well as other glands and organs in the thorax. Hyoid, incus, malleus, stapes, thymus, thyroid cage, eppiglottis.
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Describe the fetal skull.
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Large compared to the infants body length, pliable, small face compared to cranium, no teeth, large brain, fully developed inner ear, eye sight.
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What is a fontanelle?
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Fibrous membrane allowing for compression during birthing, allow the brain to grow, convert to bone within 2 years.
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How does the shape of the vertebral column change through time?
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Through lifetime it starts as a C shape as an embryo, moves to straight and lumbar curvature starts. Continues through development until adult curvature. Over development as well as historical change happens as a result of actions placed upon the body. (Sitting work versus standing work etc)
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What are the specific functions of the atlas and the axis?
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The atlas holds the head and allows for up/down "yes" movements of the head. The axis allows for rotation of the head.
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What three bones make up the os coxa?
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The illium, ischium and the pubis bones.
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How is the fibula attached to the tibia?
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Connected by the interosseous membrane which is a flat flexible membrane. Tibiofibular joints allow almost no movement. The tibia and fibula articulate distally with the talus bone, only the tibia articulates with the femur.
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Describe the general purpose of the arches of the feet.
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The foot has three arches: two longitudinal and one transverse. Arches are maintained by the interlocking shapes of the foot bones, by strong ligaments, and by the pull of some tendons during muscle activity.
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Describe the medial longitudinal arch.
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Curves well above the ground. The talus is the keystone of this arch, which originates at the calcaneus, rises to the talus, and then descends to the three medial metatarsals.
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Describe the lateral longitudinal arch.
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Elevates the lateral part of the foot just enough to redistribute some of the weight to the calcaneus and the head of the fifth metatarsal. The cuboid is the keystone bone of this arch.
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Describe the transverse arch.
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Runs obliquely from one side of the foot to the other, following the line of the joints between the tarsals and the metatarsals. Use the two longitudinal arches as pillars.
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How do the limbs develop embryologically?
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The formation of limb buds and through endochondral ossification. Starts as hyaline cartilage. 1. A bone collar forms around the diaphysis of the hyaline cartilage model. 2. Cartilage in the center of the diaphysis calcifies and then cavitates. 3. The periosteal bud invades the internal cavities and spongy bone forms. 4. The diaphysis elongates and a medullary cavity forms. 5. The epiphyses ossify.
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What is a synarthrosis?
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Immovable joint.
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What is an amphiarthrosis?
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Slightly moveable joint.
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What is a diarthrosis?
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Freely moveable joint.
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What are the three functional classifications of joints?
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Synarthroses, amphiarthroses, and diarthroses.
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What are the three structural classifications of joints?
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Fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial.
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Name and describe the three types of fibrous joints.
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Sutures - Occur only between the bones of the skull, binds bones yet allowing growth until adulthood, also called synostoses. Syndemoses - Bones connected by a ligament, example is interosseous membrane, length of fibers in ligament determines movement allowed. Gomphoses - alveolar socket in maxilla and mandible for teeth.
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What is a fibrous joint?
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The bones are joined by a fibrous tissue, no joint cavity is present.
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What is a cartilaginous joint?
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The articulating bones are united by cartilage. Lacks a joint cavity.
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Name and describe the two types of cartilaginous joints.
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Synchondroses - a bar or plate of cartilage unites the bones, most are synarthrotic, example epiphyseal plates of long bones, cartilage between first rib and manubrium of sternum. Symphyses - articular surfaces of bones covered with articular cartilage which fuses to an intervening pad/plate of fibrocartilage, amphiarthrotic joints, examples intevertebral discs and pubic symphysis.
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What is a synovial joint?
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Joint in which the articulating bones are separated by a fluid-containint joint cavity. All are diarthroses. All joints of the limbs and most of the body fall into this class. Five features. 1. Articualr cartilage. 2. Synovial cavity. 3. Articular capsule. 4. Synovial fluid. 5. Reinforcing ligaments.
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What is a meniscus and where would you find one?
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Disc or wedge of fibrocartilage separating the articular surfaces. Extend inward from the articular capsule and partially or completely divide the synovial cavity in two. Can be found in the knee, jaw and few other joints.
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Describe the ligaments typically found with a synovial joint.
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Most often these are capsular, or intrinsic, ligaments; that is, they are thickened parts of the fibrous capsule. In other cases, they remain distinct and are found outside the capsule (extracapsular) or deep to it (intracapsular).
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