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260 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are the functions of blood?
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1. Transportation of O2, CO2, nutrients, and wastes
2. Regulation of body pH, temperature, and water content of cells 3. Protection by antibodies, white blood cells, and clot formation |
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What is the viscosity of blood?
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4.5-5.5 thickness
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What is the pH of blood?
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7.35-7.45
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What is the temperature of blood?
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38 degrees of celsius
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What percentage of body weight does blood compose?
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8%
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What is the amount of blood in an adult male? female?
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5-6 liters; 4-5 liters
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What are the components of blood?
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plasma and formed elements
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Where does hematopoiesis occur in the embryo/fetus?
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liver, spleen, lymphnodes, bone marrow, thymus gland, and yolk sac
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Where does hematopoiesis occur in adults?
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myeloid tissue (red bone marrow in the sternum, ribs, vertebrae, and pelvis)- all elements, lymphoid tissue gives rise to agranulocytes
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What cells do pluripotent stem cells form and what do they become when they mature?
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proerythrocyte- erythrocyte
myeloblast- granulocyte lymphoblast- lymphocyte monoblast- monocyte megakaryoblast- platelet |
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What percentage of formed elements do erythrocytes compose?
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99%
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What shape is a erythrocyte and why is it useful?
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biconcave disc; provides more surface area
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What are the results of the lack of a nucleus by a erythrocyte?
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limited metabolism, inability to reproduce, do not possess mitochondria, and cannot produce enzymes
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What is hemoglobin composed of?
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2 alpha strands and 2 beta strands of globins each with a heme
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What are the functions of hemoglobin?
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1. can combine reversibly with oxygen
2. can combine reversibly with carbon dioxide 3. capable of buffering hydrogen ions |
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What is the formula for combining oxygen and hemoglobin?
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Hgb + O2 --><--HgbO2
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What does the combining of hemoglobin and oxygen form?
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oxyhemoglobin HgbO2
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What is the formula for combining carbon dioxide and hemoglobin?
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Hgb + CO2 --><-- HgbCO2
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What does the combining of hemoglobin and carbon dioxide form?
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carbaminohemoglobin HgbCO2
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What does carbaminohemoglobin produce?
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Blue-red color of blood
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How many O2 molecules can hemoglobin carry at a time?
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4
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What is the benefit of a erythrocyte possessing no mitochondria?
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they do not carry on aerobic respiration so they do not use the oxygen they are carrying
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What does sickle cell anemia cause?
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Loss of flexibility of the erythrocyte, causing them to get lodged in capillaries
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What is the life span of a erythrocyte?
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120 days
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What is globin broken down into?
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amino acids
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What is heme broken down into?
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Fe + bileverdin
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What is bileverdin broken down into?
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bilerubin
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What is bilerubin used for?
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Broken down into bile in the liver or sent to intestines and colon as fiber
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What happens to the bilerubin in the large intestine?
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bacteria of large intestine begins to eat and converts into urobilegin
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What eliminates urobilegin from the body?
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the kidneys
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Where does erythropoiesis occur?
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red bone marrow
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What cell begins erythropoiesis?
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pluripotent stem cells
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What do pluripotent stem cells form in erythropoiesis?
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reticulocytes
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What two events converts a reticulocyte to a erythrocyte?
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1. dumping of the nucleus
2. filling of the nucleus space with hemoglobin |
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What do the receptors in the kidney monitor?
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O2 levels
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What type of feedback mechanism is used by the kidney to monitor erythrocyte production
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negative feedback mechanism
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What materials are needed for erythropoiesis?
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supply of iron, vitamin B12, and an intrinsic factor
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Why is iron needed for erythropoiesis?
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To produce heme
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Why is vitamin B12 essential in erythropoiesis?
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component in synthesis of hemoglobin
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What is the function of the intrinsic factor in erythropoiesis?
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necessary for absorption of B12 from the small intestine
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What are the diseases possible to transmit during blood doping
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HIV and HBV
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Where do leukocytes do the major portion of their work?
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outside of blood in tissue spaces
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What type of nucleus does a granulocyte have?
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lobed
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What type of nucleus does an agranulocyte have?
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large and spherical
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What are the 5 steps of phagocytosis?
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1. chemotaxis
2. diapedesis 3. adhering to targeted damaged cell 4. engulfment of the cell 5. dumping of digestive-like chemicals into the vacuole and "eating" it |
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What type of nucleus does a leukocyte have?
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polymorphonucleus
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Which is the first leukocyte to respond to an infection?
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neutrophils
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what does a band measure?
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neutrophil production and rate
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What does a neutrophil destroy?
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bacteria and viruses
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What is the largest of the leukocytes?
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monocytes
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What do monocytes destroy?
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mostly viral infections but also bacteria
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What do fixed macrophages make up?
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reticuloendothelial system
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What does the reticuloendothelial system destroy?
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Bad and damaged cells, especially erythrocytes
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What system are wandering macrophages especially important in?
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immune
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Which cell is the least numerous of the leukocytes?
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Basophil
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which leukocyte has a light cytoplasm with large, dark purple granules?
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basophils
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Which cell contains heparin?
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basophil
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Which cell contains histamine?
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basophil
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What are the functions of histamine?
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call leukocytes for phagocytosis and initiate inflammation
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What cell contains the protein responsible for allergies?
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basophil
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What type of nucleus does an eosinophil have?
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double-lobed
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Which cell has reddish granules?
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eosinophils
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Where are the eosinophils mostly located?
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mucosa of digestive tract and respiratory tract
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What are the eosinophils' role in phagocytosis?
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Destroy antigen-antibody complexes using the lock and key method
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Which cells are the second most numerous leukocytes?
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lymphocytes
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Where are lymphocytes mostly located?
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in lymphoid tissue, mostly lymphnodes and the spleen
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Which cells give rise to the functional cells of the immune system?
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lymphocytes
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Specifically, what cells do lymphocytes give rise to?
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B cells and T cells
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What is the life span of a leukocyte?
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about 2 weeks
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What controls leukopoiesis?
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colony stimulating factors
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What is the most important source of colony stimulating factors?
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macrophages and T cells
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What cells are thrombocytes formed from?
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megakaryocytes
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What do thrombocytes function in?
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clot formation
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What chemical do thrombocytes contain?
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serotonin
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What is the life span of a thrombocyte?
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10-12 days
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Which hormone controls the production of thrombocytes?
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thrombopoietin
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Which organ can thrombocytes be stored in?
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spleen
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Which animal was the Rh factor discovered in?
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the rhesus monkey
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What stimulates the body to produce an antibody?
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exposure to the antigen for that antibody
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What injection is used for Rh- moms with Rh+ babies?
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RhoGAM
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What is the disadvantage of RhoGAM?
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It must be injected for ALL pregnancies- success, miscarriage, stillborns, and abortions
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When are the doses of RhoGAM administered?
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at the end of the 7th month and on the day of birth
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How much of plasma do the proteins make up?
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8%
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What are the plasma proteins responsible for?
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viscosity of blood
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What do plasma proteins determine in blood?
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osmotic pressure of blood
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What are some of the functions of plasma proteins?
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clot formation, protection, amino acid storage for synthesis
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What plasma protein makes up 55% of all plasma proteins?
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albumin
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What does albumin maintain?
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osmotic pressure of blood
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Where is albumin made?
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the liver
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What do gamma globulins protect against?
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viruses and bacteria
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Where is fibrinogen made?
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the liver
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What has to happen to fibrinogen in order for it to be able to make a clot?
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converted to fibrin
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What chemicals prolong the effects of vascular spasm?
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prostoglandins and serotonin
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How long does vascular spasm last?
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20-30 minutes
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What are the three steps in establishing a closed vasuclar system when a blood vessel is broken?
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vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, coagulation
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In platelet plug formation, what causes platelets to stick?
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jagged surface of the endothelium and enzymes activated in platelets
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what is a clot made of?
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fibrin and formed elements
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What are the 3 steps of coagulation?
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1. formation of prothrominase
2. conversion of prothrombin to thrombin by prothrombinase 3. conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin by thrombin |
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What are the two main coagulation factors?
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Ca+ and vitamin K
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What cells are involved in retraction?
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fibroblasts
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What do fibroblasts do in retraction?
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lay down fibers which establish the framework for tissue repair
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Which plasma protein is involved in fibrinolysis?
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plasminogen
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What does plasminogen do in fibrinolysis?
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forms plasmin to destroy fiber
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What activates plasminogen in fibrinolysis?
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break in the blood vessel wall
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What are the two major problems with hemophilia?
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internal bleeding and deposits in joints
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What does the treatment of hemophilia involve?
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providing the missing coagulation factors
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What is the problem with endothelium that can cause thrombosis?
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plaque formation
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What causes plaque formation?
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aging
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What does plaque formation produce in blood vessels?
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rough surfaces
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What is the function of antithrombin?
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inhibit thrombin
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What is the function of fibrin?
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absorb thrombin
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What is the function of heparin?
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anti-coagulant that prevents the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin
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Which cells are capable of interfering with the production of prothrombin?
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basophils and mast cells
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What is aspirin capable of in blood?
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anti-coagulant capable of inactivating an enzyme in platelets that causes adhesive
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Where is the heart located?
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the mediastinum
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What is the fibrous pericardium composed of?
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fibrous connective tissue
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What is the function of the fibrous pericardium?
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attaches the heart to surrrounding structures
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What are the two layers of the serous pericardium?
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parietal and visceral layers
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What is the cavity in between the visceral and parietal layers filled with?
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serous fluid
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What is the serous fluid in the cavity between the visceral and parietal layers for?
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lubrication during pumping
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What is the principle component of endocardium?
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endothelium attached to a connective tissue layer
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What is the principle component of myocardium?
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cardiac muscle fibers
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What is necessary for myocardium to carry out its function
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oxygen vascularization
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What is the pattern of the muscle fibers in myocardium?
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circular/ spiral
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What blood vessels are contained in the coronary sulcus?
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left coronary artery and coronary sinus
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What is contained in the anterior and posterior interventricular sulcuses?
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branches of coronary arteries and adipose pads for shock absorption
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What 3 vessels bring blood to the right atrium?
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superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, and coronary sinus
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What does the superior vena cava drain?
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body parts above the heart
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What does the inferior vena cava drain?
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body parts below the heart
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What does the coronary sinus drain?
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blood that has just travelled through the wall of the heart
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What type of blood do the superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, and the coronary sinus carry to the heart?
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CO2 rich blood
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What two arteries does the pulmonary trunk branch into?
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right and left pulmonary arteries
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Where do the pulmonary arteries travel?
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the lungs
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What veins drain the lungs?
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pulmonary veins
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What vessels drain into the left atrium?
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pulmonary veins
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What separates the thoracic and abdominal aorta?
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diaphragm
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What does the aorta split into in the pelvic cavity?
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common iliac arteries
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What does the right side of the heart pump to?
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the lungs
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What does the left side of the heart pump to?
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the bodya
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What is the function of a valve?
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prevent the backflow of blood into the heart
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What type of valve is the right AV valve?
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tricuspid valve
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What type of tissue makes up the right AV valve?
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connective tissue derived from the endocardium
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What type of valve is the left AV valve?
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bicuspid valve
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What composes the semilunar valves?
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3 pocket-shaped cusps
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What are the two types of junctions present in cardiac muscle?
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desmosomes and gap junctions
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What do gap junctions permit?
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allow waves of polarization to transfer between cells, allow masses of cardiac muscle fibers to function as a unit
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What does cardiac muscle prefer to make ATP?
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glucose
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What may cardiac muscle utilize to make ATP?
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fatty acids
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What is the conduction system of the heart composed of?
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nodal tissue
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What does the conduction system allow?
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allows the heart to beat in an orderly fashion
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What are the five components of the conduction system of the heart?
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sinatrial node, atrioventricular node, atrioventricular bundle, bundle branches, and purkinje fibers
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What is the pacemaker of the heart?
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SA node
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What does the SA node establish?
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heart rate
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Where is the SA node located?
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atrial wall inferior to the opening of the superior vena cava
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Where is the AV node located?
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the infereior portion of the interatrial septum
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What are the purpose of the nerves in the heart?
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speed up or slow down SA node activity
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What does a P wave measure on an electrocardiogram?
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atrial depolarization
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What does a QRS complex measure on an electrocardiogram?
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ventricular depolarization
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What does a T wave measure on an electrocardiogram?
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ventricular repolarization
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What do you need to pay attention to when examining an electrocardiogram?
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intervals between waves, size of the waves, presence of additional waves, missing waves
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What is the treatment for a third degree heart block?
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artificial pacemaker
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What does an artificial take the place of?
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AV node
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What two factors contribute to cardiac output?
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1. number of beats per minute
2. volume of blood moved per contraction |
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What 2 factors contribute to stroke volume?
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1. force of contraction
2. amount of venous blood returned to the heart |
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Which node is firing in the heart if the AV valves are open and the SL valves are closed?
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SA node
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Which node is firing in the heart if the AV valves are closed and the SL valves are open?
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AV node
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What does the complete diastole period in the heart allow for?
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allows blood to travel through the myocardium
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Which valve causes the louder, longer sound of the heart?
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AV valve
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Which valve causes the shorter, sharper sound of the heart?
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SL valve
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Which vein does not have a smooth muscle layer in its wall?
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coronary sinus
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What two arteries does the left coronary artery branch into?
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anterior interventricular artery and the circumflex artery
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What blood vessels does the anterior interventricular artery branch into?
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the vessels supplying the anterior wall of both ventricles
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What vessels does the circumflex artery branch into?
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the vessels supplying the left atrial wall and the left ventricular wall
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What vessels does the right coronary artery branch into?
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posterior interventricular artery and the marginal artery
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What vessels does the posterior interventricular artery branch into?
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the vessels supplying the posterior wall of both ventricles
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What vessels does the marginal artery break into?
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the vessels supplying the right atrial wall and the right ventricular wall
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About how many times does the SA node fire per minute?
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70
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Where is the cardiac center located?
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medulla oblongata
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What system is the cardiac center part of?
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the autonomic nervous system
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What are the two components of the cardiac center?
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cardioaccelatory system and cardioinhibitory system
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What nervous system is the cardioacceletory system part of?
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sympathetic
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What nerve fibers are used in the cardioaccelatory system?
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spinal nerves T1-T5
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Where do spinal nerves T1-T5 end?
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SA node, AV node, and some regions of the myocardium
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What chemical does the cardioaccelatory system release?
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norepinephrine
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What does norepinephrine stimulate?
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increased heart rate and force of contraction
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What is the cardioaccelatory system activated by?
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physical and emotional stressors
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What nervous system is the cardioinhibitory system using?
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parasympathetic
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What nerve fibers does the cardioinhibitory center utilize?
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vagus nerve
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Where does the vagus nerve end?
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SA node and AV node
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What chemical does the cardioinhibitory system release?
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acetylcholine
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What does acetylcholine do?
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decreases heart rate
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What is the function of the carotid sinus reflex?
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maintain blood pressure in the brain
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Where are the presso/barroreceptors located that measure venous blood pressure?
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vena cava
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Where are the presso/barroreceptors located that measure the brain's blood pressure?
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carotid arteries
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What secretes epinephrine?
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adrenal medulla
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Where are the presso/barroreceptors located that measure systemic blood pressure?
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the aorta
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What is the function of the aortic reflex?
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measure systemic blood pressure
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What is the function of the right heart reflex?
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control venous blood pressure
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What is thyroxin produced by?
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thyroid
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What is the result of hypercalcemia?
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arrhythmias
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What is the result of hypocalcemia?
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tetany
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What is the result of hypokalemia?
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arrhythmias and poor heart beat
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What is the result of hyperkalemia?
|
interfers with depolarization
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What is the result of hypernatremia
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inhibits the transport of Ca+ into the cardiac muscle cells, inhibiting muscle contraction
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What are the extraneous factors that affect heart rate?
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age, gender, body temperature, exercise
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What is the tunica interna composed of?
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endothelium sitting on a basement membrane attaching to a connective tissue layer
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What is the tunica media composed of?
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circularly arranged smooth muscle cells with elastic connective tissue
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What serves the smooth muscle fibers in the tunica media?
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vasomotor fibers
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What is the tunica adventitia composed of?
|
loosely woven collagen fibers
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What are the functions of the tunica adventitia?
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provide layer of cushion and support, anchor the blood vessel in place
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In elastic arteries, what is the tunica media mostly composed of?
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elastic connective tissue
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What is the function of muscular arteries?
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conduct blood to specific body organs
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Which arteries have the principle role in vasoconstriction and vasodilation?
|
arterioles
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What makes up the wall of a capillary?
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endothelium
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What is the capillary designed for?
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diffusion, osmosis, and filtration
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Capillaries are located next to every type of tissue except what?
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epithelium
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What determines the number of capillaries in a tissue?
|
the level of metabolism of that tissue
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What is the purpose of fenestrations?
|
allow larger molecules to pass through the capillary
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What cells commonly line sinusoids?
|
macrophages
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Which layer of the blood vessel wall are venules missing?
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tunica media
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Why are the walls of veins porous?
|
allows formed elements and phagocytic cells to travel into infected tissues
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What are the four factors that guarantee blood keeps moving in veins
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large lumen, presence of valves, skeletal muscle pumps, respiratory system pumps
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what is the result of atherosclerosis?
|
artery's loss of ability to expand and recoil
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At rest, how much blood is in veins?
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60%
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What is the result of venoconstriction?
|
more blood travels to skeletal muscle
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What are the two components of bulk flow?
|
filtration and reabsorption
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What is the principle solute of blood osmotic pressure?
|
albumin and plasma proteins
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What is the principle solute of interstitial osmotic pressure?
|
Na+
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What are the two pressures that drive filtration?
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blood hydrostatic and interstitial osmotic
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What are the two pressures that drive reabsorption?
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blood osmotic and interstitial hydrostatic
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Which pressure is the greatest at the arteriole end of a blood vessel?
|
blood hydrostatic
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Which pressure is the greatest at the venous end of a blood vessel?
|
blood osmotic
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Why does the slowest velocity of blood occur in capillaries?
|
so exchange of materials can occur
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What causes resistance?
|
friction between blood and vessel walls
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What generates blood pressure?
|
contraction of the ventricles
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What are 3 structural factors that directly affect blood pressure?
|
viscosity of blood, vessel length, diameter of vessel
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What are factors that affect blood pressure?
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cardiac output, blood volume, peripheral resistance
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What is the vasomotor center responsible for?
|
controlling peripheral resistance
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What factors affect the vasomotor center?
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pressoreceptors, chemoreceptors, cerebral cortex
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What does the cerebral cortex do to affect the vasomotor center?
|
in intense anger, it sends impules to vasomotor center
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What are the results of epinephrine?
|
increases cardiac output and blood pressure, causes vasoconstriction in arterioles in the cutaneous region and those serving abdominal organs, causes vasodilation in arterioles serving the cardiac muscle fibers and skeletal muscle fibers
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Where is antidiuretic hormone produced?
|
hypothalamus
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What stores and secretes antidiuretic hormone?
|
posterior pituitary
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What converts angiontensin into angiotensinI?
|
renin
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Where is angiotensinI converted into angiotensinII?
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the lungs
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What causes the adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone?
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angiotensinII
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What does aldosterone stimulate
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the reabsorption of Na+ into blood
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What triggers atrial natriuretic peptide to be released?
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high blood pressure
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What does ANP cause?
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vasodilation and kidneys to excrete Na+ and H2O
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What is the function of histamine?
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causes vasodilation and increased permeability of blood vessels, stimulates inflammation at damage site without effect on blood pressure
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what is autoregulation in conjunction with?
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oxygen levels in the region
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Where is autoregulation most important?
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skeletal and cardiac muscle and in the brain
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What is the cause of shock?
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inadequate blood flow
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What are the homeostatic mechanisms to combat shock?
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epinephrine, sympathetic nervous system, adh secretion, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone pathway
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What is the function of the liver in circulation?
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regulate amounts of nutrients in blood
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What is the function of the hematic portal system?
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carry blood between two capillary networks without passing through the heart
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What are the three principle blood vessels serving the liver?
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hepatic artery, hepatic portal vein, and hepatic vein
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What blood vessels are in the umbilical cord?
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umbilical vein and 2 umbilical arteries
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What is the foramen ovale used for?
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to bypass the right ventricle
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What is the ductus arteriosus used for?
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carry blood escaped from the right ventricle back to the aorta
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