Anth 106 Final

Front 1

aristotle

Back 1

probably studied barbary macaques classification based on phenotype of tails

Front 2

hanano

Back 2

encountered african apes, they threw rocks at his boat, he called them "gorilae"

Front 3

gallen

Back 3

anatomist, dissected barbary macaques, published books that became important references for anatomy

Front 4

gesner

Back 4

father of zoology, published first book not focused on anatomy but also studied/described behavior

Front 5

tulp

Back 5

first publication of "orang-outan"

Front 6

tyson e

Back 6

father of primatology

Front 7

linaeus

Back 7

came up with the taxonomical system

Front 8

natural selection

Back 8

1) variation within population
2) variation can be heritable
3) limited resources
4) disproportionate genetic legacy

Front 9

stabilizing selection

Back 9

maintaining the status quo

Front 10

directional selection

Back 10

a shift in the average over time

Front 11

disruptive selection

Back 11

selection against the average

Front 12

balancing selection

Back 12

maintains variation in the population by maintaining genetic diversity with different mechanisms

Front 13

non-neutral evolution

Back 13

shapes variation in a particular way depending on individual fitness under current ecological conditions

Front 14

neutral evolution

Back 14

vast majority of evolutionary changes (at the molecular) are caused by random drift which causes a change over time in the frequency of genes/traits

Front 15

adaptation

Back 15

a trait with a function

Front 16

direct fitness

Back 16

fitness is measured by the number of offspring that survive to reproduce

Front 17

indirect fitness

Back 17

fitness gained through relatives that pass on shared genes

Front 18

inclusive fitness

Back 18

individual's direct fitness + fitness gained through relatives that pass on shared genes

Front 19

examples of cooperative behaviors in females

Back 19

co-feeding, allies, alarm calls, grooming, food sharing

Front 20

examples of cooperative behaviors in males

Back 20

coalitions, alarm calls, meat

Front 21

life history theory

Back 21

organisms have a limited amount of time and energy to devote to growth, reproduction, etc.

Front 22

life history decisions

Back 22

-reproduce now v. later
-short juvenile period v. long juvenile period
-parental investment v. mating effort
-r strategy v. k strategy

Front 23

specialized trait

Back 23

selection for some special function

ex. loss of clavicle = run better

Front 24

generalized trait

Back 24

not modified for any special function

ex. five digits/retained clavicle = climbing

Front 25

primitive characteristics

Back 25

a trait which has been inherited from a distant ancestor

ex. body hair in primates, mammary glands in whales

Front 26

derived characteristics

Back 26

a trait present in a descendant taxon that was either: not present in ancestor, present in recent ancestor.

ex. loss of body hair in humans, adaptations of bipedality in humans

Front 27

traits of feet and hands

Back 27

-pentadactyly
-nails
-grasping hands/feet
-opposable first digits

Front 28

traits of visual system

Back 28

-forward-facing eyes
-orbital convergence results in stereoscopic vision
-post-orbital bar
-most have color vision

Front 29

life history traits

Back 29

-primates all share features of their life history patterns
-long life span
-long periods of gestation and dependence
-small litter size
-some have long inter-birth intervals

Front 30

evolutionary grade

Back 30

level/stage of organization based on overall similarities in morphology, behavior, and lifestyle

Front 31

evolutionary clade

Back 31

ancestor and all of its descendants, groupings reflect descent from a single common ancestor

Front 32

major clades

Back 32

1) lemuroidea (madagascar): lorises and galagos
2) tarsioidea (southeast asia, indonesia, philippines): tarsiers
3) ceboidea (south america): new world monkeys
4) hominoidea (old world monkeys): apes, humans

Front 33

plesiadapiforms

Back 33

may be ancestor to primates, but differ in many ways:
heavy reliance on smell, tusk-like incisor, eyes on the side, no post-orbital bar, small brains, no grasping hands/feet, claws instead of nails

Front 34

arboreal hypothesis (smith + jones)

Back 34

traits evolved to meet demand of life in trees; ability to judge distances and grasp branches; sense of smell not helpful, so lead to expansion of visual system in primates.

problem: many other animals are fine without primate traits

Front 35

visual predation hypothesis (cartmill)

Back 35

traits allowed primates to be effective predators of insects: the vision was used to stalk and catch insects.

problem: again, other animals eat insects but this only happend to primates

Front 36

angiosperm hypothesis (sussman)

Back 36

traits co-evolved with flowering plants that produce fruits (which produce big brains); nocturnal primates eat fruit; you need to see the fruit in the dark: expanded vision.

problem: the first appearance of certain traits and flowering plants doesn't match, and doesn't account for variability in primates' vision

Front 37

locomotor hypothesis (crompton)

Back 37

combination of leaping and finding small objects lead to visual specialization to break through camouflage.

Front 38

snake detection hypothesis

Back 38

predation by constrictors lead to visual development in early primates.

Front 39

x-ray hypothesis (changizi + shimojo)

Back 39

important to see in a leafy environment, convergent eyes allow for the ability to see past leafy visual barriers.

Front 40

euprimates

Back 40

two families:
1) omomyids
2) adapids

Front 41

where are primates found?

Back 41

typically in tropical regions, between the tropic of cancer and the tropic of capricorn

Front 42

how do primates coexist?

Back 42

1) sociality: predation may influence things like dispersal patters and group composition. more eyes = less predators.
2) distribution: species may overlap each other, may divide forest.
3) stratification in forest use: some live in trees, some live on the ground, etc.

Front 43

role of primates in their environments

Back 43

act as both predator and prey, act as pollinators/seed dispersers for the plants.

Front 44

primate ecology

Back 44

-omnivorous
-frugivorous
-folivorous
-gumnivorous
-insectivorous
-faunivorous

Front 45

scramble competition

Back 45

efficiency competition, happens when:
1) foods are mobile/can be eaten rapidly
2) foods occur uniformly through a patch
3) foods are evenly distributed through a range

Front 46

contest competition

Back 46

get food through active defense, happens when:
1) foods take a long time to eat
2) foods occur in discrete areas within a patch
3) foods occur in discrete patches within a range

Front 47

competition occurs at two levels:

Back 47

1) intergroup feeding competition: between groups
2) intragroup feeding competition: between individuals within a group

Front 48

reproductive contraints (females)

Back 48

reproductive success based on access to resources because having the baby monkey is energetically costly, which is why they arrange themselves according to resources, are choosy about mates (intersexual selection)

Front 49

reproductive constraints (male)

Back 49

reproductive success dependent on access to females, less energetically constrained, distribute based on where females are and compete for females

Front 50

different types of social systems

Back 50

-solitary foragers
-monogamous pairs
-one male, multi-females
-multi-male, multi-female
-fission/fusion groups
-multi-level groups

Front 51

solitary foragers

Back 51

females have overlapping home ranges, male ranges overlap female territory.

females travel with young, female territoriality varies, both sexes disperse

Front 52

monogamous pairs

Back 52

mating pair share a home range, do not overlap others ranges.

territorial, pair travels with offspring, both sexes disperse, variable paternal care.

Front 53

one male, multi-female group

Back 53

males and females share large range, both travel with dependents, males disperse when sexual maturity is reached, highly sexually dimorphic, high infanticide rates, variation in male reproductive success (highly aggressive), males may bond with other males in bachelor groups, females are not closely bonded.

Front 54

multi-male, multi-female group

Back 54

both share a large range, both travel with offspring, males form dominance hierarchy, male-based dispersal, varying degree of sexual dimorphism

Front 55

fission/fusion

Back 55

type of multi-male/female group.

share a large range, form and splinter whenever, female based dispersal, males are all related, males cooperate to defend, male/male competition, reduced sexual dimorphism

Front 56

multi-level groups

Back 56

many multi-groups form temporarily while foraging or sleeping.

may occur due to rarity of sleeping sites, may reduce cost of female dispersal, little interaction of members between groups even when gathered as a band.

Front 57

4 theories as to why primates live in groups

Back 57

1) predation
2) food competition
3) infanticide
4) dispersion/foraging efficiency

Front 58

examples of how primates cooperate

Back 58

1) territorial defense
2) cooperative infant care
3) cooperative antipredator defense

Front 59

why cooperation is important

Back 59

1) need to learn about predators
2) development of alarm call specificity (ex. chlorocebus)
3) how to find/process food
4) co-feeding and learning food selectively
5) how to behave
6) cultural traits
7) ways of resolving conflict when in contact with another individual

Front 60

how are hierarchies determined?

Back 60

1) avoidance
2) supplant (displacement of another)
3) dominance
4) aggression

Front 61

what governs male relationships

Back 61

1) distribution of females in time and space
2) ways to access females/how they compete

Front 62

ways males gain access to females/how they compete

Back 62

1) defense of resources (solitary foragers, monogamous pairs): aggression towards other males.
2) mate defense (m-ff, monogamous pairs): agression towards other males.
3) social dominance (mm-ff): complex male relationships, often sperm competition.

Front 63

what males cooperate over

Back 63

meat, territory, status

Front 64

what resources are important to females?

Back 64

help, safety, food

Front 65

morphological characteristics of strepsirhines

Back 65

1) grooming claw
2) postorbital bar
3) less complex visual system

Front 66

behavioral characteristics of strepsirhines

Back 66

1) mostly arboreal
2) most are solitary foragers
3) most nocturnal
4) rely heavily on non-visual signals
5) many show female dominance
6) some baby park, some carry
7) some undergo torpor
8) many are good leapers

Front 67

lorisoidea

Back 67

geographic: c africa + se asia

primary predators: barn owls, snakes, chimps, genet

Front 68

subfamilies of lorisoidea

Back 68

1) galaginae
2) lorisinae
3) perodictinae

Front 69

lemuroidea

Back 69

geographic location: madagascar

predators: raptors

Front 70

families of lemuroidea

Back 70

1) lemuridae
2) indriidae
3) lepilemuridae
4) daubentoniidae
5) cheiroglaeidae

Front 71

subfamilies of lemururidae

Back 71

1) lemur
2) varecia

Front 72

cheriogaleidae genera

Back 72

1) phaner
2) mirza
3) cheriogaleus

Front 73

lepilemuridae genera

Back 73

1) lepilemur

Front 74

indriidae genera

Back 74

1) indri
2) propithecus
3) avahi

Front 75

daubentoniidae genera

Back 75

1) daubentonia

Front 76

lemuroidea general diet tendencies

Back 76

a) primary
b) variety of diets

Front 77

lemuroidea activity pattern

Back 77

a) variety: some are diurnal, some are nocturnal

Front 78

lemuroidea social organization

Back 78

a) variety of social systems; very social

Front 79

non-malagasy strepsirhines

Back 79

1) all nocturnal
2) solitary foragers
3) slow or fast moving
4) similar diet: fruit, insects

Front 80

malagasy stresirhines

Back 80

1) highly seasonal breeding, some have litters
2) some show seasonal changes in activity
3) some exhibit seasonal changes in sociality
4) female feeding dominance
5) lack of sexual dimorphism
6) fill a variety of niches

Front 81

energy conservation hypothesis

Back 81

harsh environment of madagascar has led to extreme f-f competition over resources during key times

Front 82

evolutionary disequilibrium hypothesis

Back 82

recent extinctions of raptors and large-bodied lemur species allowed extant taxa to shift to diurnal activity pattern

Front 83

morphological traits of haplorhines

Back 83

1) exhibit more derived characteristics
2) all but tarsiers have fully closed postorbital plates
3) greater orbital convergence
4) larger relative brain size
5) reduced olfactory system
6) no rhinarium (dry nose)
7) no tapetum lucidum (eye shine)
8) fused frontal bones
9) fused mandibl
10) more complex molars
11) larger bodies

Front 84

behavioral traits of haplorhines

Back 84

1) almost entirely diurnal
2) more herbivorous
3) inability to synthesize vitamin c (need fruit)
4) less leaping
5) most live in social groups
6) greater sexual dimorphism

Front 85

morphological traits of tarsiers

Back 85

1) mostly closed orbital plate
2) very large convergent eyes
3) no tapetum lucidum
4) fused frontal
5) dry nose
6) mobile eyers
7) 2 grooming claws
8) specialized ankle/leg morph
9) sharp, simple teeth
10) unfused mandible
11) no tooth comb
12) discoidal, haemochorial placenta
13) primitive uterine morphology
14) multiple sets of nipples

Front 86

behavioral traits of tarsiers

Back 86

1) nocturnal
2) specialized vertical cling/leap
3) solitary foragers
4) baby park
5) faunivorous

Front 87

2 possible classifications of tarsiers

Back 87

1) grade (prosimii)
2) clade (haplorhini)

Front 88

how are adapoidea like lemurs?

Back 88

1) grade: similar molars, snouts, skulls, postorbital bars
2) clade: small, spatulate upper incisors, derived ankles/wrists, one species with grooming claw

Front 89

how are adapoidea different from lemurs?

Back 89

1) no tooth comb
2) usually have fused mandibular synthesis

Front 90

2 types of adapoidea

Back 90

1) genus cantius
2) genus notharctus (best known adapoid)

Front 91

how are omomyoidea like tarsiers?

Back 91

1) small body size
2) unfused mandibular synthesis
3) most with large eyes
4) short snouts
5) leaping adaptations
6) similar placement of olfactory bulb

Front 92

type of omomyoidea

Back 92

1) genus teilhardina

Front 93

why are lemurs, lorises, and tarsiers today restricted to madagascar and nocturnal niches of africa/asia?

Back 93

1) madagascar split from africa early and the only primates to get there were lemurs
2) competition with rodents, monkeys, apes pushed lorises and tarsiers into nocturnal niches

Front 94

morphological characteristics of cercopithecoids

Back 94

1) bilophodont molars
2) large diastema
3) sectorial lower canine that sharpens upper incisor
4) ischial callosities
5) sexually dimorphic

Front 95

behavioral characteristics of cercopithecoids

Back 95

1) uniform dispersal/dominance patterns
2) some are highly terrestrial

Front 96

genuses of cercopithecidae

Back 96

1) colobus
2) pilicolobus
3) semnopithecus
4) presbytis
5) nasalis

Front 97

morphological characteristics of platyrrhines

Back 97

1) distinctive nose shape (flat nose)
2) three premolars, small/no diastema (space between teeth)
3) some have prehensile tails (only nwm)
4) some have claw-like nails
5) polymorphic color vision
6) many show reduced pollex opposability

Front 98

behavioral characteristics of platyrrhines

Back 98

1) highly arboreal
2) all live in groups
3) lots of female dispersal
4) scentmarking common
5) all diurnal except owl monkey
6) cebus uses tools
7) polyspecific associations common
8) headcocking (owm)

Front 99

geographic distribution of platyrrhines

Back 99

africa + s america

Front 100

primary predators of platyrrhines

Back 100

1) harpy eagle
2) jaguar
3) tayra
4) ocelot
5) boa constrictor
6) anaconda
7) crested eagle

Front 101

3 families of platyrrhini

Back 101

1) atelidae
(genera: ateles, alouatta, brachyteles)
2) cebidae
(genera: cebus, aotus)
43 callitrichidae
(genera: saguinus)

Front 102

morphological characteristics of catarrhines

Back 102

1) narrow, downward facing nostrils
2) 2 premolar (platyrrhines have 3)
3) visual acuity (strongest sense)
4) all trichromatic

Front 103

behavioral characteristics of catarrhines

Back 103

1) all diurnal
2) all but one of them live in groups (except orangutan)
3) many are more terrestrial than nwm
4) larger bodied
5) use the ground more
6) many rely on visual cues of estrus instead of olfactory (sexual swelling are cues of estrus)

Front 104

morphological characters of cercopithecoids

Back 104

1) bilophodont molars
2) large diastema
3) sectorial lower premolar
4) they are fruit eaters so the have a long small intestine
5) cheek pouches
6) sexual swelling

Front 105

behavioral characteristics of cercopithecoids

Back 105

1) fairly uniform dispersal/dominance patterns
2) highly terrestrial
3) most are highly arboreal
4) almost entirely male based dispersal
5) dominance hierarchies vary in strength/means

Front 106

genera of cercopithecoids

Back 106

1) colobus
2) presbytis
3) cercopithecus
4) papio
5) theropthecus

Front 107

2 tribes of cercopithecines

Back 107

1) cercopithecini
2) papionini (includes macaques and baboons)

Front 108

cercopithecines: genus macaca

Back 108

macaques

Front 109

cercopithecines: genus papio

Back 109

baboons

Front 110

dietary tendencies of cercopithecines

Back 110

1) fruit eaters
2) simple stomach and digestive tract
3) large incisors
4) low rounded molar cusps: budidant teeth
5) really good manual hands
6) cheek pouches

Front 111

activity pattern of cercopithecines

Back 111

1) quadrupedal walkers and runners, some are good leapers

Front 112

social organization of cercopithecines

Back 112

1) alloparental care: after 6 hours of being born, the mother lets other females take care of them
2) most live in single m or multi f
3) social life revolves around matrilines and female hierarchies

Front 113

life history pattern of cercopithecines

Back 113

1) no very small species
2) almost all are sexually dimorphic
3) most reproduce one offspring every 2-3 yrs
4) compared to strepsirhines and nwm, they are fairly uniform in morphology and behavior

Front 114

4 types of cercopithecidae)

Back 114

1) macaques (large mm/mf groups with female philopatry)
2) red colobus (males cooperatively defend against chimps)
3) hamadryas baboon (males are more philopatric)
4) silvered langur (males defensive of females, not resources)

Front 115

first anthropoids

Back 115

1) oligopithecidae
2) propliopithecidae (much more similar to living anthropoids)

Front 116

branisella

Back 116

found in bolivia, 26 mya: earliest nwm.

likely terrestrial.

hard to assign to modern clade, fairly generalized.

Front 117

theories about nwm origins

Back 117

1) n american route (descended from omomyoids and somehow got to s america but there was no land bridge and the currents were going the wrong way)
2) asian model (eosimias was an ancestor, no anthropoid fossils in n asia, ocean currents still a problem)
3) antarctica (warmer 40 mya: maybe land bridges)
4) african origins (likely by rafting, ocean less expansive, more islands existed then, ocean currents go the right way!)

Front 118

victoriapithecidae

Back 118

1) preceded the colobinae/cercopithecinae split
2) low rounded cusps and likely frugivorous and ate hard seeds
3) eating foods closer to the ground implies terrestriality
4) has ischial callosities

Front 119

morphological characteristics of hominoids

Back 119

1) adapted for below branch brachiation
2) highly flexible shoulder
3) top of humerus is bigger and rounder, for swinging
4) clavicle is longer
5) rib cage is deeper
6) greater flexibility in wrist
7) lack of tail
8) brain differences
9) y-5 molars, 5 cusps, y-shaped groove (only on bottom)

Front 120

behavioral characteristics of hominoids

Back 120

1) below-branch suspensory movement
2) orthograde posture
3) sleep in nests
4) variation in social organization
5) slow life history
6) cognitive skills
7) highly frugivorous (except gorillas: folivorous)

Front 121

family hylobatidae of hominoidea

Back 121

distribution: se china to sumatra
diet: frugivorous with leaves, insects, flowers
activity pattern: diurnal, arboreal brachiator
social organization: monogamous, both sexes disperse, live in ranges that don't overlap much
life history pattern: slow
unusual traits: both m/f come in both colors (black or camel), no paternal care, feed while the hang below branches

Front 122

monogamy traits of hominoids

Back 122

1) close proximity and distress when separated
2) monomorphism (m/f look the same in terms of canine and body size
3) territoriality
4) coordinated displays

Front 123

4 theories of monogamy

Back 123

1) dispersed females (male can only protect one female = reproductive success higher)
2) male defense (male must protect while females forage)
3) paternal investment (female reproductive success suffers without male assistance)
4) infanticide (monogamy minimizes infanticide risk)

Front 124

folivore paradox

Back 124

folivores tend to be large, large animals require less energy per unit mass than small animals even though their absolute energy requirements are higher. according to the jarmen-bell principle, the more abundant the food, the larger the group size. but folivorous primates tend to violate this.

why?
1) food may be more limited
2) predation pressures
3) higher infanticide risk in larger groups

Front 125

family pongidae

Back 125

includes great apes, excludes humas.

strong sexual dimorphism as males are 2x size of females.

Front 126

family hominidae

Back 126

gorilla and pan and humans

Front 127

pan troglodytes

Back 127

primary food: fruit, but mostly herbivorous.
social: live in groups but forage alone, males patrol.
tools: to access certain foods.
fission-fusion societies/complex social relationships: grooming.
life history pattern: first reproduction at 14/15 yrs, interbirth interval is 5 yrs, lifespan is 53 yrs.

highly territorial, mate throughout year, different cultures in different populations.

Front 128

variation in fission-fusion societies

Back 128

1) ateles and p. troglodytes: males dominant over females, lots of male aggression between communities, females more solitary, fluid subgrouping.
2) brachyteles and p. paniscus: more egalitarian inter-sex relationship, less aggression between communities, females more social: form coalitions against males, more stable/large mixed sex subgroups.

Front 129

how to proconsulidae differ from living apes?

Back 129

they lacked the brachiating complex of all living hominoids

Front 130

what shared traits do proconsulidae have with living apes?

Back 130

many primitive traits shared, shared derived traits (no tail, proximal humerus, more rounded), details of the thumb and big toe.

Front 131

oreopithecus

Back 131

"enigmatic ape"

has brachiating complex, pelvis has bipedal characteristics, but feet do not.

Front 132

morotopithecus

Back 132

from early miocene of moroto in uganda

50 kgs, ate fruits/seeds, has a palate that looks like a large proconsul, but its lumbar vertebrae are more hominoid-like than proconsul, more rounded shoulders also.

Front 133

asian clade: sivapithecus

Back 133

similar to orangutan

postcrania presents an interesting problem: mix of quadrupedal/brachiation adaptations.

Front 134

african clade: dryopithecus

Back 134

teeth are chimp like in size and morphology, probably ate soft fruit, skeleton like ape but not adapted for knuckle walking.

Front 135

how are humans physically different from other primates?

Back 135

1) modified pelvis and knees (sexually dimorphic pelvis shape)
2) loss of body hair
3) changes in dentition (parabolic shape in teeth, canines largely reduced, thicker enamel)
4) changes in cranium (prognitism nope, huge skull vaults because we lost our brow ridges)
5) changes in brain size (certain parts better developed)

Front 136

how are humans behaviorally different than other primates?

Back 136

1) lots of fish/meat in diet
2) heavily reliant on tools
3) cooperative hunting
4) sexual division of labor
5) midwifery (assistance in childbirth)
6) significant alloparental care
7) language
8) unusual life history pattern (long post-reproductive period, go through menopause, can reproduce rapidly, don't have reproductive overlap)
9) fission-fusion social organization
10) territorial

Front 137

3 examples of subsistence strategies in humans

Back 137

1) kenya: agro-pastoralist kipsigis: maize and cattle
2) tibet: high-altitude farming, estate passes to eldest son
3) congo: pygmy hunter-gatherers

Front 138

3 examples of mating systems in humans

Back 138

1) polygyny in kenya (82% of pop)
2) polyandry in tibet (1% of pop)
3) monogamy in congo (17% of pop)

Front 139

3 hypotheses on why bipedalism evolved

Back 139

1) walking on two legs is an efficient form of locomotion
(humans v. chimps = equally costly, but locomotion in humans more efficient)
2) erect posture allowed hominins to keep cool (thermoregulate)
3) bipedal locomotion leaves hands free to carry things (may travel greater distances while carrying things: advantageous when food is in a dangerous place)

Front 140

paranthropus (megadont)

Back 140

large molars/premolars, robust jaws, sagittal crest like gorillas.

features like humans: reduced prognathism, reduced brain size, more human-like hands, found in e and s africa.

Front 141

earliest humans: changes in limb length, brain size, dentition

Back 141

a. anamensis (4.2-3.8 mya) = bipdal, primitive jaws + teeth

a. afarensis (3-3.6 mya) = fully bipedal, teeth are very mediate between humans and apes, primitive skull

a. afarensis (2.4-3 mya) = less prognathism, canine reduction, bicuspid premolars, parabolic dental arcade shape

paranthropus (2.3-1 mya) = megadont features + reduced prognathism, larger brain, more human-like hands

homo habilis (2.5-1.9 mya) = smaller jaws/teeth, larger brains, still small-bodied

homo eragaster (1.8 mya) = larger brain, smaller teeth, long legs

homo heidelbergensis (600-400 kya): looks like ergaster/erectus but larger brains. in europe --> h. neanderthalensis. in africa --> h. sapiens.

Front 142

earliest tools in humans?

Back 142

h. habilus found with oldowan tools (2.5 mya)

used tools to get foods

h. ergaster used sophisticated acheulean tools 1.5 mya

Front 143

summary of hominin evolution

Back 143

a) human-chimp split = 6-8 mya
b) bipedalism = 4.2 mya
c) dentition changes = 3.6 mya, modern = 2.4 mya
d) brain sizes still small, cheek teeth enlarging now
e) radiation of hominids: tools v. megadont = 2.5-1 mya
f) modern limb proportions/brain sizes increase/first tool cultures = 1.8 mya
g) hominids out of africa = 1.7 mya
h) lca of humans/neanderthals = 600 kya
i) lineages appear in europe/africa = 200 kya
j) humans move out of africa = 45 kya