Animal Phys

Front 1

Four categories of cells

Back 1

1. Muscle

2. Nerve

3. Epithelial

4. Connective

Front 2

Functional units

Back 2

--Subunits of an organ

Front 3

Three types of muscles cells

Back 3

1. Skeletal

--Help limbs and skin move

2. Cardiac

--Movement of heart

3. Smooth

--Dilation of blood vessels

Front 4

Internal mileu

Back 4

--Interstitial fluid

--Also refers to the main component of the the extra-cellular fluid

--The fluid that surrounds the tissues and organs

Front 5

Walter Cannon on homeostasis (3 features)

Back 5

(1) Homestatsis doesn't occur by chance (its a coordinated system)

(2) The regulatory system that maintains homeostasis consists of cooperating mechanisms that act simultaneously or successively

(3) Resisting change (negative feedback)

Front 6

Three parts of negative feedback

Back 6

1. Sensor

2. Integrating center (decides what to do with the change)

3. Effector (releases hormones etc. to fix)

Front 7

What does your body do to thermoregulate when you are cold and need to raise body temperature?

Back 7

--Constriction of blood vessels (why your face goes white)

--Decreased sweating

--Increased shivering

Front 8

Two things that dictate direction of rxn for a reversible one?

Back 8

1. Principle of chemical equilibrium

2. Law of mass action

NOT AN ENZYME

Front 9

Things that dictate how fast a reaction will go

Back 9

1. Concentration of reactants

2. Temp

3. Enzymes/activation barrier

Front 10

Enzyme regulation (1) allosteric modulation

Back 10

Can be an activator or inhibitor

--Non-covalently binds to regulatory site (not covalent bond like with covalent modification)

Front 11

Enzyme regulation (2) covalent modification

Back 11

--Enzymes catalyze a bond between chemical group and enzyme molecule

--Changes the active site

Front 12

Total body water

Back 12

2/3 ECF

--ECF made up of mostly Interstitial fluid but also plasma

1/3 intracellular water

Front 13

Main things ATP is used in

Back 13

1. Movement

2. Membrane transport

3. Molecular synthesis

Front 14

Two ways to produce ATP

Back 14

1. Substrate-level phosphorylation

--Don't need O2

2. Oxidative phosphorylation

--Depends on O2 for the oxidative reactions in the mitochondrial environments

Front 15

Four steps in glucose oxidation

Back 15

1. Glycolysis

2. Linking step

3. Krebs cycle

4. Oxidative phosphorylation

Front 16

Glycolysis

Back 16

--1 glucose --> 2 pyruvates

--10 step process, 10 enzymes involved

--Produces 2 NADH + 2H that are used in oxidative phosphorylation

Front 17

Linking step

Back 17

--2 pyruvate --> 2 acetyl- coA

--Pyruvate enters mitocondria

--Produces 2 NADH + 2H that are used in oxidative phosphorylation

Front 18

Krebs Cycle

Back 18

--8 enzyme process

--Uses 1 acetyl coA to make 3NADH + 3H and 1 FADH which will go to oxidative phosphorylation

Front 19

Oxidative Phosphorylation

Back 19

NADH and FADH donate their electrons to acceptors in ETC and become oxidized

Front 20

How to make ATP in absence of oxygen? (aka no oxidative phosphorylation)

Back 20

--Use the glycolysis step only

--Produce 2NADH and 2ATP

--NADH oxidized to NAD+ which makes lactate

Front 21

Uncoupling

Back 21

--When H+ go from intermembrane to inner membrane space to produce heat but no ATP

Front 22

Two types of membrane transports

Back 22

1. Passive

2. Active

Front 23

Two types of Passive

Back 23

1. Carrier mediated

--Through transmembrane protein channel

--No ATP

2. Simple diffusion

--From high to low concentration

--Only at short distances

Front 24

Two types of active

Back 24

1. Primary Active Transport

2. Secondary Active Transport

Front 25

Chemical driving force is caused by

Back 25

Concentration gradient (moves from high to low until uniformly distributed)

Front 26

Diffusion time is proportional to

Back 26

Distance^2

Front 27

What are the two things that the net diffusion flux rate are proportional to?

Back 27

1. Concentration differences between two locations

2. Proportional to the membrane permeability

Front 28

What is used to calculate net flux rate?

Back 28

--Fick's law

Front 29

Fick's law equation

Back 29

F = K (permability) x A (surface area) x X (concentration outside) - X (concentration inside)

Front 30

Is a smaller membrane (more thin) more permeable or not?

Back 30

Yes, more permeable

Front 31

What things does the permability constant affected by?

Back 31

1. Temp (increased temp, increased diffusion)

2. Solubility (more soluble in lipid bilayers when non-polar than polar/charged)

3. Size and shape of molecule (when small, the molecule is able to diffuse more rapidly)

Front 32

What dictates the electrical driving force?

Back 32

--The membrane potential of the cell and the charge of the ion

----Opposites attract

Front 33

Another named for carrier mediated diffusion?

Back 33

Facilitated diffusion

Front 34

What is facilitated diffusion?

Back 34

--No ATP

--Used to bring ions and such through the membrane when low permability

--Open and close

--Are effected by same factors as diffusion except this also has a saturable rate because it can be full

Front 35

Primary Active Transport

Back 35

--Hydrolyze ATP to move things against their electrochemical gradient

--Move Na out of the cell even though there isn't alot in the cell to begin with

--Used to counteract the leaks

Front 36

Secondary Active Transport

Back 36

--Don't directly hydrolyze ATP but use the gradients that are formed by other ATPases which facilitates movement

Front 37

What are transporters used in? What are the different types?

Back 37

1. Cotransporters -- unidirection

2. Countertransporters -- bidirectional

Front 38

What is calculated with the Nerst equation?

Back 38

--The equlibrium potential

-

Front 39

Osmolarity

Back 39

--Total SOLUTE particle concentration

--An increase in osmolarity is a decrease in water concentration

--Osmosis moves in direction of higher osmolarity

Front 40

Tonicity

Back 40

--The function of the concentration of non-permeating solutes (basically the stuff that is unable to cross the membrane)

Front 41

Urea

Back 41

--Permeating solute, something that can move into the cell and create an osmotic driving force for the diffusion of water

Front 42

Epithelial Transport

Back 42

--Transport across entire cell layers

Front 43

Apical vs. Basal epithalial

Back 43

Apical

--Faces the lumen

--Uses cotransporter (secondary transport)

Basal

--Faces the intersitial fluid

--Uses primary transport (Na2+/K+ pumps etc.)

Front 44

How is water transported across epithelials?

Back 44

--Not by water pumps (only solute pumps exist)

--Need to have a osmotic gradient (Active transport of solutes) and then the water will flow due to osmosis

Front 45

Explain how cells would secrete fluids:

Back 45

1. Solute transported against concentration gradient (from low--> high) to create an osmotic gradient so increase the concentration of non-permeating solutes outside in the interstital fluid

2. The water will flow from cell to interstital fluid on the basolateral side (down its concentration gradient)

Front 46

How would taking in fluids differ?

Back 46

--It would be the opposite

Front 47

How do cells communicate with one another?

Back 47

Intercellular chemical messengers

Front 48

What are the three types of intercellular chemical messengers?

Back 48

1. Hormones

--Secreted by endocrine cells to target cell

--Target cells must have a receptor

--Slow acting

2. Neurotransmitters

--Secreted by nerve/pre-synaptic cells

--Fast-acting

3. Autocrine agents

--Used for local homeostatic response

--Short distances

--Reach target cells using diffusion

Front 49

Four features of a signal transduction pathway

Back 49

1. Able to amplify

2. Receptor specific

3. Desensitization/adaption

--Can pull receptors away, stop responding

4. Integration

--Doesn't have to be one input, can be many inputs

Front 50

What increases cell strength? (essientially, what increases the number of receptors that are bound)

Back 50

1. Presence of messenger

2. Number of receptors on the membrane etc.

3. Affinity between receptor and ligand

Front 51

Two types of receptors that can bind to messengers

Back 51

1. Intracellular receptors

2. Membrane-bound receptors

Front 52

Characteristics of intracellular receptors

Back 52

--Act as transcription factors

--Can be either located in the nucleus or in the cytosol

--If they are in the cytosol then they will bring the ligand with them and act as a transcription factor

Front 53

Three types of membrane-bound receptors

Back 53

--All respond to lipophobic messengers

1. Channel-linked receptor

2. Enzyme-linked receptor

3. G-protein linked receptor

Front 54

Exocrine vs. endocrine glads

Back 54

--Exocrine: secrete to products outside like ducts etc.

--Endocrine: which secrete products directly into the blood stream

Front 55

Four things that show that the endocrine and nervous system interact

Back 55

1. Endocrine glands are under nervous control

2. Some HORMONES are released from NEURONS rather than from endocrine glands

3. Depending on where they are in the body some substances may act as a hormone (when in circulation) or as a neurotransmitter in the brain

4. Hypothalamus-Pituitairy COmplex

--Neuro-endocrine interface itself

Front 56

Substance that acts as a neurotransmitter and a hormone depending on where it is in the body

Back 56

Epinephrine/adrenaline

Front 57

Examples of secondary endocrine organs

Back 57

--The heart, liver, stomach, skin, intestine

Front 58

Three classes of hormones

Back 58

1. Amines

2. Protein + polypeptide hormones

3. Steroid hormones

Front 59

Precursor of catecholamines

Back 59

Tyrosine

--Depending on available enzymes, they will make certain catecholamines

Front 60

T3 + T4

Back 60

--Regulate metabolic rate and growth

--Derived from tyrosine

--Secreted from thyroid

--Are amines

Front 61

Proteins/polypeptides that act as hormones

Back 61

--GH (Released by anterior pituitary)

--Atrial naturetic peptide (released by heart to regulate sodium reabsorption by the kidneys

Front 62

Preprohormone vs. Prohormone

Back 62

Prohormone: as it leaves the golgi

--Gets cleaved to become hormone

Preprohormone: after gene transcription

--Gets cleaved to become prohormone

Front 63

Steroid hormones

Back 63

--Are hydrophobic/lipophilic

--Can diffuse membranes to reach the intracellular receptors

--Produced by gonads (sex stereoids), placenta and adrenal cortex

Front 64

What needs a carrier in blood stream?

Back 64

--Lipophilic/hydrophobic

Front 65

How do hormones effect their target cells?

Back 65

1. Directly (activating or inhibiting cells)

2. Indirectly (having permissive effects which are like altering the sensitivity (up/down regulating their receptors)

Front 66

Octapeptides

Back 66

--Oxytocin and vasopressin

--Released from vesicles in the posterior pituitary

--8 AA

Front 67

Adenohypophysis

Neurohypophysis

Back 67

--Anterior pituitary

--Posterior pituitary

Front 68

Hypothalamus -- pituitary portal system

Back 68

--Neurosecretory cells in hypothalamus release TROPIC hormones into this area and stimulate the release of different hormones from the anterior pituitary

Front 69

Dopamine

Back 69

--Suppresses prolactin

Front 70

Prolactin

Back 70

--Not a tropic hormone

--Used in reproductive functions, promotes breast development, milk production, suppresses ovulation

Front 71

ACTH

Back 71

--promotes glucocorticoid release from adrenal cortex in response to stress

Front 72

GH

Back 72

--promotes IGF-1 release to promote growth (insulin-like growth factor 1)

--Alters protein synthesis and carbohydrate + lipid metabolism

Front 73

LH + FSH

Back 73

--Stimulates sex hormone production and promotes ovulation

Front 74

Short loop vs long loop negative feedback

Back 74

Short loop: from anterior -- hypothalamus

Long loop: from adrenals etc to anterior or hypo

Front 75

Adrenal cortex secretes

Back 75

(1) Mineralcorticoids

(2) Glucococorticoids

Front 76

Chromaffin cells are located in and secrete

Back 76

--Adrenal medulla, secrete mostly epinephrine and

Front 77

Beta blockers

Back 77

--Are epinephrine receptor antagonists (decrease) so that when epinephrine is secreted is cannot bind to the heart (decreases heart rate, blood pressure etc.)

Front 78

Pancreas alpha cells

Back 78

--Stimulates glucose release into the blood in response to a fall in glucose

--Glucagon

Front 79

Pancreas beta cells

Back 79

--Stimulates glucose re-uptake using insulin

Front 80

Diabetes Type 1

Back 80

--Destruction of beta cells

--Auto-immune

Front 81

Diabetes Type 2

Back 81

--Resistant to insulin because there is so much glucose in the fluid

--Change diet etc.

Front 82

Thyroglobulin

Back 82

--Precursor to t3 and t4

--released from follicles in the thyroid

Front 83

Thyroid organ

Back 83

1. Secretes T3 + T4

2. Secretes calcitonin

Front 84

Parathyroid gland

Back 84

1. Secretes calcitonin

--Used in metabolic rate

Front 85

How does the heart act as a secondary endocrine organ?

Back 85

--Secrete ANP

--Responds to heart stretch, regulates Na2+ reabsorption by the kidney

Front 86

How does the liver act as a secondary endocrine organ?

Back 86

--Insulin growth factors are released in response to GH which is used to stimulate growth

Front 87

How does the kidney act as a secondary endocrine organ?

Back 87

--In response to change in O2, causes erthopoietin which causes blood cell proliferation

Front 88

Additive

Syneristic

Back 88

-- = sum of the multiple effects

-- the sum is greater than the effects

Front 89

Glial cells (90% of cells in NS) have functions

Back 89

1. Structural integrity of NS

2. Homeostatic regulation

3. Acts as myelin to insulate

4. Used in local intercellular

Front 90

Bipolar neurons

Back 90

--Typically sensory neurons

--Cell body between neurons and dendrites

Front 91

Pseudo unipolar

Back 91

--Cell body off to the side

--Axon and dendrites appear as a single process that extends in two directions but the dendrites actually functions as an axon

--Peripheral axon

--Central axon

Front 92

Peripheral axon

Back 92

--Modified dendritic process

--Originates in periphery but actually transmits APs

Front 93

Central axon

Back 93

--Extends in CNS, forms synapses w/ other neurons

Front 94

Multipolar

Back 94

--One axon, many dendrites

--Cell body at top and many projections

Front 95

What is an efferent response of a somatic response?

Back 95

Skeletal

Front 96

What is an autonomic response from the efferent division?

Back 96

--Sympathetic

--Parasympathetic

Front 97

Afferent neuron, terminate as CNS

Back 97

Pseudo-unipolar, afferent

Front 98

Receptors in periphery (2)

Back 98

1. Sensory receptors

2. Visceral receptors

Front 99

Example of visceral receptor

Back 99

Baroreceptor

Front 100

Efferent neuron

Back 100

--Multiple polar neuron that enters PNSq

Front 101

Glial cells in PNS

Back 101

--Schwann

--Satellite

Front 102

Glial Cells in CNS

Back 102

--Oligodendocytes (same as Schwann in PNS)

--Astrocytes

--Microglia

--Ependymal

Front 103

Why does myelinated make them faster?

Back 103

--Reducing ion leak

Front 104

Two things that determine Vm

Back 104

1. Concentration gradients

--concentrations of ions like K+ and Na+

2. Permeability of ions

--Moving across

Front 105

Two types of electrical signals

Back 105

1. Graded Potentials

2. Action potentials

Front 106

What is summation and what type of potential does it occur in?

Back 106

--Spatial -- Multiple interactions

--Temporal -- One interaction

HAPPENS IN GRADED POTENTIAL

Front 107

Do graded potentials have refractory periods? Why does this make sense?

Back 107

--No, makes sense because spatial action potentials occur

Front 108

Absolute refractory period

Back 108

--Corresponds to depolarization and repolarization

Front 109

Relative refractory period

Back 109

--Corresponds to hyperpolarization

Front 110

What are GPs

Back 110

--When dendrites open their dendrites

--Let ions flow in

--Signals then propagate

Front 111

What can't an action potential occur in the absolute or refractory period?

Back 111

Sodium channels still inactivated

Front 112

Trigger zone

Back 112

--Axon hillock

Front 113

Explain the conduction and axon diameter relationship

Back 113

--Increased conduction with increased diameter

--Resistance to action potential is inversely related to axon timer

Front 114

Three benefits of myelination

Back 114

1. Saves surface area

2. Metabolically cheaper

3. Higher conductance

Front 115

Axosomatic synapse

Axoaxonic synapse

Back 115

--Synapse between cell body of post-synaptic neuron and pre-synaptic dendrites

--Synapse between axon of post-synaptic nueron with terminal arms of pre-synnaptic neurons

Front 116

Where do electrical synapses occur?

Back 116

--Neuron to neuron, neuron to glial

Front 117

Where do chemical synapses occur?

Back 117

--Can be neuron-neuron or neuron to effector

Front 118

Two types of receptors a neurotransmitter may bind to

Back 118

1. Channel-linked receptor (ionotropic) receptor

-----FAST ACTING

2. G-protein coupled (metabotropic) receptor

-----SLOW ACTING

Front 119

Two types of metabotropic receptors

Back 119

1. Direct coupling

--Indirectly activates an ion channel

2. Second messengers

--Indirectly activates by binding to enzyme

--Second messenger might phosphorylate etc.

Front 120

GABAa receptor is a ____ receptor, what does it let in and what happens when it does

Back 120

--Ionotropic

--Let Cl into

--GABA released at inhibitory synpases

--When bound to GABA then hyperpolarizing happens

Front 121

Three things that affect neurotransmitter release

Back 121

1. AP frequency

--stronger stimulus, might activate more frequency, more calcium in neuron when AP freq release

2. Autoreceptors

--on pre-synaptic neuron, may inhibit/ promote

3. Presynaptic facilitation/inhibition (modulatory synapses)

Front 122

Parts of forebrain

Back 122

Cerebrum, diancephalon

Front 123

Parts of diancephalon

Back 123

thalamus, hypothalamus, pituituary gland

Front 124

Part of brainstem

Back 124

pons, medulla, midbrain

Front 125

Glossopharyngeal

Back 125

--CN 9

--Motor control of swallowing and salivary glands

Front 126

Vagus nerve

Back 126

--CN10

--Afferent of thoracic + abdominal

--Motor control of larynx + pharynx

Front 127

Partellar Tendon Stretch

Back 127

--Only monosynaptic stretch

--Muscle spindle senses the stimulus and synapses with afferent neurons which will relay info to CNS and efferent neurons

--Excitatory connect to contract quad, inhibitory to relax hamstring

Front 128

Withdrawal

Back 128

--Stepping on something makes hamstring contract and quad relaxed

--Nocireceptors transmit info to spinal cord where they can have excitatory synapses and transmit to other side for efferent neurons on the other leg

--in order to stabilize leg then you have the quad excited and the hamstring inhited

Front 129

Pacininan corpuscle

Back 129

Type of mechanoreceptor that responds to vibration

Front 130

Baroreceptors

Back 130

--Detect BP, regulate heart

Front 131

Chemoreceptors

Back 131

--Detect O2, CO2, pH

Front 132

Sensory unit

Back 132

--A single afferent with all it's receptors

Front 133

Receptor potential

Back 133

--GP induced by a stimulus in a sensory receptor

Front 134

Second-order neuron

Third-order neuron

Back 134

--Spinal cord to thalamus

--From thalamus to cortex

Front 135

TRP

Back 135

--Temperature sensitive ion channels that underlie temperature sensation

Front 136

Capsaicin

Back 136

--Binds to temp receptor

--Eliciting a hot response

Front 137

Rhodopsin

Back 137

--Protein that detects light

--Influences g-protein that regulates the opening of ion channels

Front 138

Presence of light

Back 138

--Reduction of AP, activate G-protein, close Na, hyperpolarize, reduce stimulation of bipolar cells

Front 139

Anatomy of SNS Pre-ganglionic fibres

Back 139

--Cell bodies are in the brain stem or the spinal cord

--Thinly myelinated and go towards the autonomic ganglion

Front 140

Anatomy of SNS Post-ganglionic fibres

Back 140

--Cell bodies in the autonomic ganglion

--Unmyelinated and projects to visceral effector organs

Front 141

Anatomy of PSNS Pre-ganglionic fibres

Back 141

--Cell bodies in the brain stem or sacral SC

--Ususally travel through CN

Front 142

Anatomy of PSNS Post-ganglionic fibres

Back 142

--Shorter

--Cell body in autonomic ganlion

Front 143

NT in pre and post synaptic synapses in PSNS

Back 143

Ach

Front 144

NT in pre in PSNS

Back 144

Ach

Front 145

What breaks down Ach

Back 145

Acetylcholinesterase

Front 146

Two types of Ach receptors

Back 146

1. Ionotropic/ Nicotonin

--Nicotonic receptor

--On all post-ganglionic neurons (activation of PSNS)

2. Metabotropic/ Muscarinic

--Expressed at effector organ

Front 147

Three places where SNS may intervate pre and post

Back 147

1. Sympathetic chain

--Travel through spinal cord to synapse in symapthetic chain

2. Collateral ganglion

--another place where they might synapse

in SNS when post-ganglionic is short

3. Chromaffin cell

Front 148

Final transmitter of SNS (usually)

Back 148

Norepinephrine

Front 149

Adrengenic receptors

Back 149

--Binds NE and E

--Metatrophic

--Effector organs of SNS

Front 150

Two classes of adrengenic receptors

Back 150

A class

B class

Front 151

A1 pathway

Back 151

--NE/E bind to metatrophic receptor, activate g-protein, bind to enzyme that use PIP to result in phosphorylation

Front 152

A2 + B pathway

Back 152

--NE/E bind to metatropic receptor, activate/inhibit G protein, ATP used to make cAMP, cAMP elicit a response