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129 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is the area called where the heart is located? In Situ, how is the heart oriented? |
Mediastinum The heart is rotated so the right side is anterior, and apex is towards the left |
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What are the two layers of the pericardium? What divides them? |
Fibrous Pericardium and Serous Pericardium (Parietal and Visceral) The Pericardial Cavity |
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What are the four layers of the heart wall?
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Epicardium-visceral layer of serous membrane Myocardium-actual heart muscle, Contractile cardiac cells Subendothelium-Pacemaker cells Endothelium-simple squamous cell layer inside heart |
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What are characteristics of heart muscle cells? |
Striated, Involuntary, Branched (contain gap junctions)
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Where are Pacemaker cells located? Where are Purkinje Fibers located and from where do they arise? |
Pacemaker-Sinoatrial Node
Purkinje-Ventricles, from Bundle Branches in the Moderator Band |
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What is the function of Auricles? What are the 4 valves of the heart? What is the function of of Valves? |
Increase surface volume and blood reservoir Tricuspid Valve, Bicupid Valve, Pulmonary Semilunar Valve, Aortic Semilunar Valve To prevent backflow of blood |
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Why is the left side of the heart thicker than the right?
What is a junction of blood vessels called? |
Because the left is feeding into the systemic circulation, higher pressure Anastomosis |
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What are the differences between veins and arteries?
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Veins are easily collapsible; Arteries are thicker; Veins are blood reservoirs; Veins are "usually" deoxygenated/arteries oxygenated; Arteries have smaller lumen Arteries have more distinct tunica Tunica Media is largest in Arteries; Tunica Adventitia is largest in Veins Veins have valves |
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Explain Fetal Circulation
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Blood from placenta (↑ O2) travels through liver via Umbilical Vein and Ductus Arteriosus Blood goes to RA, and passes through Foramen Ovale to get to LA Blood goes out to Aorta and body Some blood goes through Pulomonary Trunk to nourish growing lungs Most blood goes from PT to Aorta via Ductus Arteriosus to go to placenta |
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Name the Fetal Structures and what they become after birth |
Umbilical Vein→Round Ligament of Liver Ductus Venosus→Ligamentum Venosum Foramen Ovale→Fossa Ovalis Ductus Arteriosus→Ligamentum Arteriosus |
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What are the 3 Tunicas of a blood vessel, and give characteristics of each |
Tunica Intima: inner layer, contains blood, endothelium, and subendothelial layer Tunica Media: middle layer, Smooth Muscle Tunica Adventitia: loosely woven collagen fibers; contains Verri vasculari (Vasomotor nerves) and Vasa Vasorum (Blood supply to layers) |
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Describe Large/Elastic Arteries and their function
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Large Lumen 3 Distinct Tunicas Elastic Walls Conducting Arteries: help maintain blood pressure between ctxns, conduct blood away from heart |
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Describe Medium/Muscular Arteries and their function |
Smaller lumen than Elastic 3 Distinct Tunicas Lots of smooth muscle Distributing Arteries: regulates blood supply by ctxting and relaxing smooth muscle; distributes blood to organs |
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Describe Small Arteries/Arterioles and their function |
3 Tunicas in largest
Only Endothelium and smooth muscle in smallest Regulates distribution of blood to tissues (vasoconstriction/dilation) |
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What are Capillaries? How many layers of cells are there? |
Smallest blood vessels made of 1 layer of endothelial cells |
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Describe Continuous Capillaries and their function |
located in most tissues (skin, muscle, lung) Cells are linked by Tight Junctions Least Permeable, Most Common |
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Describe Fenestrated Capillaries and their function |
have little openings (GI, Kidney, Endocrine)
Filtrate and Absorption of fluids Deliver Hormones, Collect Nutrients, Form Urine |
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Describe Discontinuous Capillaries and their function |
leaky (bone marroe, liver, spleen) Allow large molecules and blood cells to pass Incomplete basement membrane Large Irregular Lumens and Slow Flow |
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What to capillary beds have that allow blood in or shunt it towards other end? What is a name for an important shunt? |
Sphincters Arteriovenus Shunt |
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Describe Small Veins/Venules and their function
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Endothelial cells Thin Tunica Media and Adventitia DO NOT contain valves |
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Describe Medium Veins and their function |
Thickest layer is Adventitia Contain Valves to facilitate blood flow |
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Describe Large Veins and their function |
Thickest layer is Adventitia Central body veins DO NOT contain valves (IVC) |
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What 2 Pumps are used to aid in venous return?
What happens when valves malfunction? What are areas in the brain called that collect blood? |
Calf Pump and Respiratory Pump Varicose Veins Venous Sinuses |
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What does the Internal Carotid A. anastomose with? Where is the Circle of Willis found and what arteries combine to form it? |
Vertebral Artery Surrounding Pituitary Gland; Basilar Artery and Verterbral/Internal Carotid |
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What does the Superior Mesenteric A. provide blood to? What does the Inferior Mesenteric A. provide blood to? |
Small Intestine and Proximal 2/3 Large Intestine Distal 1/3 Large Intestine |
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What is the difference between a Thrombosus and an Embolism?
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A Thrombosus is a venous blockage, Embolism is a moving clot |
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Where are the two plexuses in the Hepatic Portal System? |
#1 Mesenteric Veins entering into the Splenic Vein #2 Hepatic Portal Vein entering into the liver meeting the IVC |
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What is the function of the Conducting Zone? |
Warms, Filters, Humidifies Air |
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Why would injury of vocal folds take a long time to heal? |
They are avascular |
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Why would something entering into the bronchi of the lungs have a harder time being removed if it entered the right lung? |
The right bronchus is more vertical |
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Where does the cartilage on bronchi end? Where is the end of the Conducting Zone? |
Bronchioles do not contain cartilage Terminal Bronchioles |
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What type of cells are in the Respiratory and Muscosal Membranes?
What type of cells are in the Alveoli? |
Psudostratified Columnar Simple Squamous |
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What is the function of the Intercoastal Muscles? |
External Intercoastal-lift ribs and expand volume, ↓ Pressure, Inhale Internal Intercoastal-depress ribs and decrease volume, ↑ Pressure, Exhale |
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Compare and Contrast Cardiac M. to Skeletal and Smooth
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Cardiac has striations like Skeletal, Gap Junctions like Smooth, T-Tubules and Sarcoplamsic Reticula but NO Terminal Cisternae (Triads) |
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Which cell is striated Pacemaker or Contractile Cells? What do all cardiac cells must have a lot of? |
Contractile Cells are Striated Mitochondria |
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How are cardiac cells connected to each other? Where can they be found (Ctxtle, Pacemaker, Both?? |
Intercalated Discs (Gap Junctions + Desmesomes) Both |
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How does excitation travel in cardiac cells? |
Pacemaker Cells→Contractile Cells |
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Name 3 Protein Channels found in the membranes of Pacemaker Cells, direction of ion travel, and what it does to RMP |
Leaky Na+: depolarization (slight), into cell Fast Ca2+: further depolarization (steep), into cell K+: repolarization, out of cell |
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Name 3 Protein Channels found in the membranes of Contractile Cells, direction of ion travel, and what it does to RMP |
Fast Na+: depolarization (steep), into cell Slow Ca2+: depolarization (plateau), into cell K+: repolarization, out of cell |
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Describe the Location and Sequence of Events of Electrical Stimulation in Pacemaker Cells |
Sinoatrial Node (RA) initiates stimulation which then travels to LA and to RV; (controls for 70-75 bpm HR) Stimulation reaches the Atrioventricular Node (RA) which holds off on passing to RV until Ventricles have finished diastole; (controls for 50 bpm HR) Signal is then passed onto Atrioventricular Bundle Branches which sends to L/R Bundle Branches Bundle Branches pass on to Purkinje Fibers via Moderator Band which stimulate Papillary Muscles Papillary Muscles help over AV valves |
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What is an EKG an illustration of?
What are the phases and what do they signify? |
The OVERALL electrical activity of the heart, not individual cells P Wave: atrial depolarization QRS Complex: atrial repolarization, ventricular depolarization T Wave: ventricular repolarization |
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Define the following terms: Bradycardia, Tachycardia, Ectopic Focus, Fibrilation |
Bradycardia: slow HR<60 bpm Tachycardia: fast HR>100 bpm Ectopic Focus: Premature Ventricular Ctxn; takes control over SA node resulting in slower HR, doesn't allow AV node to hold off on opening valves Fibrilation: rapid and out of phase ctxns |
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What are 3 Factors regulating the Cardiac Cycle? |
Pressure/Flow: blood will flow from high P→low P Elasticity: the more stretch, the larger the force of ctxn; Starling's Law Mass Balance: amount of blood that goes out = amount that comes in |
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Which lasts longer Diastole or Systole? Which chamber has greater force of contraction, Atria or Ventricles? Which side of the heart has greater force of contraction? |
Diastole Ventricles Left Side |
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What is Isovolumentric Contraction, and what valves are open/closed? What event follows this, and what valves are open/closed? Why does this happen? |
Beginning stages of Systole. Increasing pressure, volume is constant because AV and SL valves are Closed Ventricular Ejection. SL valves open because pressure in ventricles has overcome back-pressure from great vessels |
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What is Isovolumentric Relaxation, and what valves are open/closed? What event follows this, and what valves are open/closed? Why does this happen? |
Beginning stages of Diastole. Decreasing pressure, volume is constant because AV and SL valves are Closed Ventricular Filling. AV valves open because pressure in atria has overcome pressure in ventricles. |
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What sounds correspond to what valves in the heart? Which ones open first? |
Lub=AV; Mitral first Dub=Semilunar; Aortic first |
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Give the equations for Stroke Volume and Cardiac Output
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Stroke Volume: End Diastolic Volume-End Systolic Volume Cardiac Output: SV * HR |
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Define Preload and Afterload |
Preload: volume of blood that enters the heart to later come EDV Afterload: volume of blood the heart must contract against to push blood out of heart; backpressure of blood in great vessels |
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What affects the contractile strength of the heart? What is Inotropism? |
Ca2+ Up/Down Regulation of contractility; Up: Sympathetic, Down: Parasympathetic ↓ Ca2+, ↑ K+ |
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How does Sympathetic Regulation affect Pacemaker Cells? |
Adrenergic and Beta Receptors allow Pacemaker cells to reach threshold more quickly for faster rate of control |
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How does Parasympathetic Regulation affect Pacemaker cells? |
Increase K+ permeability and Vagal Tone to ↓ HR |
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What is the Brainbridge Reflex? |
atrial sympathetic reflex when atria stretch, HR ↑, Force Ctxn ↑
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P Wave: 1. E- Activity- 2. Muscle Action- 3. Chamber Pressure- 4. Blood Flow- 5. Valves- 6. Cardiac Cycle- |
1. A: Depolarized, V: RMP 2. A: Ctxting, V: Rest 3. A: High, V: Low 4. A: Out, V: Into 5. AV: Open, SL: Closed 6. A: Systole, V: Diastole |
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QRS Complex: 1. E- Activity- 2. Muscle Action- 3. Chamber Pressure- 4. Blood Flow- 5. Valves- 6. Cardiac Cycle- |
1. A: Repolarized, V: Depolarized 2. A: Relaxing, V: Ctxting 3. A: Decreasing, V: Increasing 4. A: Into, V: @ first NONE, then Out 5. AV: Closed, SL: Closed (ISO)→Open (ejection) 6. A: Diastole, V: Systole |
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T Wave: 1. E- Activity- 2. Muscle Action- 3. Chamber Pressure- 4. Blood Flow- 5. Valves- 6. Cardiac Cycle- |
1. A: RMP, V: Repolarization 2. A: Rest, V: Relaxing 3. A: Low, V: Decreasing 4. A: Out, V: In 5. AV: Closed (ISO)→Open (Filling), SL: Closed 6. A: Diastole, V: Diastole |
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How do changes in local pressure affect ΔP? |
If you have an increase in local pressure in one location (vasoconstriction) then the ΔP will be lower, meaning flow will decrease. Opposite is true. |
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What is Compliance? What is the relationship between compliance and local pressure? |
Stretchability of the artery via autonomic innervation More compliance=less pressure buildup |
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Give the equation for Pulse Pressure Give the equation for Mean Arterial Pressure |
Pulse Pressure=Systolic Pressure-Diastolic Pressure MAP=Diastolic Pressure + Pulse Pressure/3 |
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What 3 Factors increase Resistance of Flow? What does Poiseuille's Law state? |
Viscosity of blood, Length of vessel, Diameter of vessel Flow is directly related to Radius (4th power) |
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Where do Sympathetic Nerve Fibers innervate blood vessels? What does the Baroreceptor Reflex do? |
Tunica Adventitia When barorecptors in aortic arch or carotid bifurcation stretch too much, they send signals to medulla and pons which reflexively inhibit sympathetic nerves, cause vasodilation, and decrease BP |
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What chemicals are Vasodilators? |
Atrial Natriuretic Factor Nitric Oxide Alcohol (via fluid loss and inhibition of ADH) Inflammatory Chemicals |
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What chemicals are Vasoconstrictors? |
Adrenal Medulla homorones (Norepinephrine and Epi) Angiotensin II Clotting Factors |
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What two hormones decrease urine output and affect BP? |
ADH and aldosterone |
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What areas have increase blood supply during exercise? What areas have decrease blood supply during exercise? |
Heart, skeletal muscle, skin Abdomen, kidneys, other Brain remains constant |
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What are the two components of blood?
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Plasma and Formed Elements |
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What is plasma made of? What portion contains no clotting proteins? How is plasma maintained? |
Proteins and lipids. Mainly water. Serum Fluid (input=output) and Solutes (from organs) |
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What is the function of Erythrocytes? Are they a true cell? What do they contain? What do they lack? What does this tell you about their lives? |
Transport O2 and CO2 No ATP, Hemoglobin, Carbonic anhydrase, Lipid-containing cytoplasm Nucleus, Ribosomes, Mitochondria Short life. Unable to do Translation/Transcription or protein synthesis. Can only make ATP through Glycolysis, not oxidative phosphorylation |
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What is the function of Hemoglobin? Where is does it carry something? Where do areas of RBC production occur from fetus to adult? |
To carry up to 4 O2 molecules On Fe inside of porphyrin ring Many tissues in fetus→bone marrow and lymph tissues→only bone marrow and in specific regions |
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How many days does it take to form new RBCs? What is the turnover rate of RBCs? What is the hormone used to create RBCs and where is it secreted from? What is the stem cell that begins the process called? Where are old RBCs destroyed and via what? |
15 days 120 days Erythropoietin, kidney Hemocytoblast Spleen via Macrophages |
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What are the 3 Phases of Erythropoiesis? |
Phase 1: Ribsome Synthesis
Phase 2: Hemoglobin accumulation Phase 3: Ejection of nucleus |
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Describe the degradation of RBC and the elements' fates that make it up |
Hemoglobin splits into Heme and Globin Heme splits into Fe and Porphyrin Ring Fe gets sent to liver and then back into bone marrow; Porphyrin ring gets sent to bile and then feces Globin degrade into amino acids which get sent back into circulation |
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What is the function of Leukocytes? Are they a true cell? What is diapedesis? |
Immunity Yes Leukocyte ability to move from bloodstream into interstitium independently |
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What are 3 Types of Granulocytes and their functions |
Neutrophils: tri-lobed; contain enzymes and antibiotic proteins and proteosomes; Phagocytic Eosinophils: weakly phagocytic; respond to parasitic infections and allergic responses Basophils: NOT phagocytic; contain histamines for allergic and inflammatory responses |
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What are the 2 Types of Agranulocytes and their functions? |
Lymphocytes: T and B cells, NOT phagocytic; antibody production and immunity Monocytes: become Macrophages after exiting blood; signaling role in immune response |
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What is the stem cell that beins Leuokopoiesis? What cells become the cell types? |
Hemocytoblast
Myeloblast→Granulocyte Monoblast→Monocyte Lymphoblast→Lymphocyte |
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What is the function of Platelets?
Are they a true cell? What do they contain? What hormone regulates production and where is it from? What is the stem cell type that begins Thrombopoiesis? |
Help in blood clotting No Actomysin squeezes fluid out of clot Thrombopoietin, spleen and kidney |
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What are 3 Mechanisms to Stop Bleeding? |
Vessel Constriction: vascular spasm Platelets Clump: for small tears; release of Thromboxane, ADP, Serotonin, Platelet Factor 3 Coagulation: for large tears; sequential activation of clotting factors that activate in presence of torn vessel |
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What are the 3 Steps of the Coagulation Cascade? |
Step 1: Production of Prothrombin Activator (produced on site) Step 2: Conversion of Prothrombin (from liver) to Thrombin Step 3:Conversion of Fibrinogen (from liver) to Fibrin *Conversion is brought on by previous product* |
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Describe the Extrinsic Pathway of Coagulation |
Tearing of external blood vessel wall ↓ Tissue Factor VII + Ca2+ cofactor ↓ Tissue Factor IX (intrinsic pathway); Tissue Factor X ↓+ Ca2+ cofactor ↓←Tissue Factor V and PF3 3 Steps |
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Describe the Intrinsic Pathway of Coagulation |
Activation of circulating factor ↓ Tissue Factor XII ↓ Tissue Factor XI ↓ Tissue Factor IX ↓ Tissue Factor X ↓+ Ca2+ cofactor ↓←Tissue Factor V and PF33 Steps 3 Steps |
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Name Anticoagulation Factors and where they act |
Antithrombin and Heparin: TF XII, XI, IX, Thrombin Thrombomodulin: Thrombin Protein C: TF VII, V Prostacyclin: decreases platelet aggregation |
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What three things help Clot Retraction and Disolution? What is the process of clot breakdown called? |
Actomysin: squeezes out serum Platelet-Derived Growth Factor: smooth muscle division and healing Conversion of Plasminogen (activated by clotting factors) to Plasmin (Breaks down Fibrin) Fibrinolysis |
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What is Thrombocytopenia? What is Polycythemia? What is Hemophilia? |
few platelets or anything destroying bone marrow too many red blood cells that may cause viscous blood inability to clot blood |
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What are the 2 classes of Antigens in blood? What Antigen is present in Type O blood? Type A can only receive/donate blood from what? Type B can only receive/donate blood from what? Type AB can only receive/donate blood from what? Type O can only receive/donate blood from what? |
A and B No antigen R: O, A / D: A, AB R: O, B / D: B, AB R: O, AB / D: AB R: O / D: A, B, AB, O |
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What blood group displayed D Antigens? What happens if the mother becomes Rh-? |
Rh First child will be fine, but if she has a second child who is Rh+, the body will attack the blood of the Rh+ baby because the mother has created antibodies |
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What is the function of the Lymphatic System? |
Fluid Balance Absorption of Fat Defense |
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Name the levels of organization of lymph tissues What are the three components of the lymph tissue? |
Lymph Tissue→Nodules→Tonsils→Nodes Capsule→Cortex→Medulla |
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What are the 2 types of Pulp found in the Spleen and what is their respective functions? What type of human is this an area of RBC production? |
White Pulp: houses lymphocytes for immune Red Pulp: area of RBC destruction Fetus |
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What are the 2 areas of the Thymus and what is their respective function? What type of human is this an area of RBC production? |
Cortex: lymphocyte production Medulla: regulation T-Cell maturation Fetus |
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How do lymph vessels travel? How do they enter the venous system? Into where? What is the ratio between left and right sides of the body? |
one way via the Thoracic Duct, R/L Subclavian Veins 3/4 Body drains into left, 1/4 Body drains into right |
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What are the 2 branches of the immune system? What do they use to help them? |
Innate (non-specific) and Adaptive Complement Proteins |
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What are examples of Mechanical Barriers of the Innate Immune System? |
Mucous Membranes Skin Saliva Tears Cilia |
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What are examples of Chemical Barriers of the Innate Immune System? What attract other white cells to an area of infection? |
Enzymes Acids Defensins Mucin Histamines Leuokocyte Inducing Factors |
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What is the term for how Leukocytes get into interstitium from blood? What is the main job that they do? |
Chemotaxis Release degrading chemicals or phagocytize and then degrade with lysosomal/proteosomal enzymes |
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What is the function of Neutrophils? |
Phagocytic. Form pus after death |
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What is the function of Basophils? |
Release Histamines, Anticlotting Factors (Heparin), Attract other white cells (leukotrienes) |
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What is the function of Macrophages? What do they arise from |
Phagocytic Monocytes |
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What is the function of Mast Cells? |
release inflammatory chemicals (attract other white cells) |
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What is the function of Natural Killer Cells? |
(Large Granular Lymphocytes) Kill cell via chemical lysis |
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What is the function of Dendritic Cells? |
Phagocytic. |
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Where are Complement Proteins made? What do they form? What is its function? |
Liver Membrane Attack Complex Open up hole in antigen in order to lyse cell and opsonization (make it easier for other cells to bind and phagocytize) |
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What is the function of Interferons? How are they created? |
Proteins that are sent to neighboring healthy cells from an infected cell that help stimulate antiviral proteins in the healthy cell to block virus |
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What type of Autonomic Response is likely to happen during an infection? Why? |
Parasympathetic Response to vasodilate blood vessels to 1. bring more cells to area of infection, 2. ↑ Vessel Permeability |
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What are 3 ways the Adaptive Immune Response is different from the Innate?
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Recognition: targets specific cells and antigens Systemic: many tissues are involved, not a local response Memory: will recognize cell the next time of infection and respond faster |
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What are 2 types of Antigens?
What is displayed on either healthy cells or infected cells to inform health of cell? |
Foreign and Self Autoimmune disease Major Histocompatibility Protein |
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What are the 2 (sub)Classes of Lymphocytes and their functions? |
B-Cells: create antibodies T-Cells: 1. Helper-Attract other cells; 2. Cytotoxic-kill directly via chemicals; 3. Regulatory-suppress/dampen response |
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How do B-Cells create antibodies? What type of Immunity is this called? |
B-cells with membrane receptors for specific antigen will bump into antigen. B-Cell will then clone and then turn into Plasma Cells→produce antibodies Cloning also produces memory cells Humoral Immunity |
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What is the structure of an Antibody like?
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Constant Region: where complements and macrophages may bind
Variable Region: antigen binding site designed to bind to same antigen original B-Cell bound to |
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Give the 5 classes of Antibodies and where they are found/how they are of use
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IgM: released by plasma cells, #1 antibodies IgA: mucus IgG: most abundant, able to cross plaenta IgD: B-cell receptor IgE: Allergy |
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Give 3 ways and describe how Antibodies help Macrophages and Dendritic Cells to eliminate antigens What help with this process? |
Neutralization: antibodies will surround antigen, not allowing membrane receptors to be functional Agglutination: antibodies will bind several antigens together to make them easier to target Precipitation: antibodies help precipitate antigen out of solution or slow them down to make for easier elimation Complement Proteins |
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Describe the mechanism of action for Cell Mediated Response |
A macrophage or dendritic cell will engulf an antigen and break it down. It will then display the antigen protein on the MHC of the cell making it an Antigen Presenting Cell T-cell will come and bind to APC @ MHC APC will give off co-stimulatory molecules to which the T-Cell will have own complementary molecule. T-cell will then become activated and clone forming the other t-cell types |
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What is the pressure of the atmosphere? What is the pressure of the lungs relative to atomospheric pressure? What is the pressure of the pleural cavity relative to atmospheric pressure? What is Transpulmonary Pressure? |
760 mmHg it can change depending on volume of lungs and thoracic space Always negative Difference between intrapleural and intrapulmonary pressures |
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What is the relationship between volume and pressure? Which is an active process inhalation or exhalation? When the diaphragm contracts, what happens to pressure? |
Volume in inversely related to pressure Inhalation is active Pressure will ↓ |
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What 3 factors can influence Airway Resistance? |
Sympathetic Vasoconstriction Sympathetic Vasodilation Asthma |
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Why don't the alveolar sacs collapse on themselves due to surface tension? |
Because of the high amounts of phospholipids in the alveoli, it acts as a barrier between H20 molecules and makes Hydrogen bonding weaker |
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Define the follwing: Tidal Volume, Inspiratory Reserve Volume, Expiratory Reserve Volume, Residual Volume |
Tidal Volume: the amount of air inhaled and exhaled in a normal breath Inspiratory Reserve Volume: amount of air taken in after Tidal Volume inspiration Expiratory Reserve Volume: amount of air released after Tidal Volume expiration Residual Volume: amount of air still in lungs that keeps lungs inflated |
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Define the following: Inspiratory Capacity, Functional Residual Capacity, Vital Capacity, Total Capcacity |
Inspiratory Capacity: Tidal Volume + Inspiratory Reserve Volume; after you let out a passive breath, you forcful inhale Functional Residual Capacity: Expiratory Reserve Volume + Residual Volume; amount left inside after you let out passive breath Vital Capacity: Inspiratory Reserve Volume + Tidal Volume + Expiratory Reserve Volume; Maximum amount of air you can breathe in and then forcfully exhale Total Capacity: all volumes added OR Inspiratory Capacity + Functional Residual Capacity |
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Where does the Conducting Zone meet the Respiratory Zone? What is another name for the Conducting Zone? |
At the Terminal Bronchioles Anatomical Dead Space |
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To get Minute Volume what must you multiply?
To get Alveolar Ventilation what must you take into account? |
Breaths/Minute * mL/Breath (Respiratory Rate*Tidal Volume) Dead Space (Respiratory Rate*[Tidal Vol.-Dead Space Vol.]) |
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What 3 Factors influence Gas Exchange? What pressure gradient drives gas exchange the most? |
Respiratory Membrane Thickness Surface Area Partial Pressures Interpulmonary Pressure |
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What is the pp of O2 at: Alveoli and the Capillaries arriving at lungs? What is the pp of O2 at: Capillaries arriving at tissues and the cell itself? How will oxygen diffuse in both cases? |
104 mmHg & 40 mmHg 104 mmHg & 40 mmHg Alveoli→Capillaries Capillaries→cell |
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What is the pp of CO2 at: Alveoli and the Capillaries arriving at lungs? What is the pp of CO2 at: Capillaries arriving at tissues and the cell itself? How will carbon dioxide diffuse in both cases? |
40 mmHg & 45 mmHg 40 mmHg & 45 mmHg Cell→Capillary Capillary→Alveoli |
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What are 2 ways Oxygen is transported in blood? Which is more common ***? What does the Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve state? How much oxygen is left in the venous system? |
Dissolved in plasma & Bound to Hemoglobin (***) Unloading of Oxygen from Hemoglobin increases the farther you travel away from the lungs and towards tissue; saturation decreases with decreased Partial Pressure of Oxygen (dissolved in plasma) 75% |
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What factors will shift the Hemoglobin saturation curve? If you have more active glycolysis, what are you likely to form that will shift the graph? |
↑ Temperature: Shift towards right (faster unloading); ↓ Temperature: Shift towards left (slower unloading) ↑pH: Shift towards left (slower); ↓pH: Shift towards right (faster) ↑ pO2: Shift towards left; ↓ Shift towards right ↑pCO2: Shift toward right; ↓ Shift towards left Lactic Acid (↓ pH) |
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What are 3 ways CO2 is transported in blood? What is the most common ***? What is the Chloride Shift? |
Dissolved in Plasma Bound to Hemoglobin Converted to Bicarbonate Ion *** (carbonic anhydrase used in rxn) When Carbonic Acid is broken up, it gives off Bicarbonate Ion and H+. As Bicarbonate Ion leaves the body at lungs, Cl- enters in order to keep balance of charges |
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What makes up the Medullary Respiratory Group and where is it found? What controls the length of inspiration? How? What does the VRG contain that regulates ion currents? |
Ventral and Dorsal Respiratory Groups, Medulla Oblongata The Pons Respiratory Group via control over VRG and DRG Pacemaker cells |
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What are 2 types of receptors that help regulate breathing? |
Chemoreceptors and Baroreceptors |
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What forces bring water into a capillary? What force push water out of a capillary? |
Capillary Osmotic and Interstitial Hydrostatic Capillary Hydrostatic and Interstitial Osmotic |
