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250 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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Major Anatomical Components of CNS |
- Brain - Spinal Cord |
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Major Anatomical Components of the PNS |
1) Nerves - Crainial Nerves - Spinal Nerves 2) Ganglia - Sensory - Autonomic |
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Functional Divisions and Subdivisions of the PNS |
1) PNS - Cranial Nerves & Spinal Nerves - Communication lines btwn CNS and Body 2) A) Sensory (afferent) division - Somatic and visceral sensory nerve fibers - Conduct impulses from receptors to CNS 2B) Motor (efferent) division - Motor Nerve Fibers imbord |
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Neuron Properties |
All neurons are capable of performing Sensation, Integration and Reaction Charecteristics: 1) Excitability - respond to (mechanical, chemical, electrical) stimuli 2) Conductivity - quickly transmit electrical signals over long distances 3) Secretion - Release neurotransmitter to affect another cell |
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Distinguish the 3 functional classes of neurons |
Classified based on fx 1) Sensory/afferent - conduct signals from receptors TO CNS 2) interneurons - (association neurons) confined to CNS 3) motor/efferent - conduct signals FROM CNS to effector muscles and glands This slide may need elaboration |
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Label and Describe Nueron parts: Soma, dendrites, axon, initial segment, axon collaterals, axontermials |
1) Cell body/Soma - Contains the Nucleus 2) |
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Identify and describe fx of Nissl bodies and Nuerofibrils |
Nissl bodies - Concentrations of Rough ER responsible for making protiens needed by cell Neurofibrils - bundles of actin filaments that support the cell |
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Action Potentials how do they go down |
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Difference between ganglia and nuclei |
Ganglia = cell bodies w common fx Gray matter in PNS Nuclei = cell bodies w common fx Gray matter in CNS |
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Difference between tract/fasiculus and a nerve |
Tract/fasciculs = white matter in CNS, axons with a common fx Nerve = white matter in PNS, axons with a common destination |
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Location and fx of multipolar neurons |
- Most common type - Most neurons in CNS - Most are interneurons that conduct impulses within CNS; integrate sensory input and motor output - Some are motor neurons that conduct impulses along the efferent pathway from CNS to effector |
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Location and fx of bipolar neurons |
Rare - found in some special sensory organs (olfactory mucosa, eye, ear) Fx - sensory neurons (transmit visual inputs from eye to brain) |
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Location and fx of unipolar neurons |
Most unipolar neurons are sensory neurons that conduct impulses along afferent pathway to CNS for interpretation (these sensory neurons are called primary or first-order sensory neurons) - General sensory cells in doral root and crainial nerve ganglia |
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Identify glial cells types found in CNS |
1) Astrocyte 2) Ependymal Cell 3) Oligodendoctye 4) Microglial Cell |
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Function of Astrocyte |
Glial cell located in CNS. Fx: take up ions from ECF - Surround blood vessels to help control exchange - form scar tissue when neurons are injured |
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Fx of Ependymal Cells |
Glial cell located in CNS Fx - Line ventricles (fluid filled spaces) in brain - produce CSF |
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Fx of Oligodendrocytes |
Glial cell located in CNS Fx: Myelinate axons in CNS |
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Fx of Microglia |
Glial cell located in CNS Fx: Macrophages of CNS - Phagocytose infectious agents AND degenerating tissue (add fig?) |
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Fx and location of Satellite Cells |
- Location: ganglia (clusters of nerve cell bodies) in PNS - Surround cell bodies in PNS and separate them from surrounding tissue |
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Fx and location of Schwann Cells |
Location: Associated w ALL axons in PNS Fx: myelinate the large axons - each schwann cell myelinates PART of a SINGLE axon - each axon has many schwann cells - there are gaps btwn adjacent schwann cells (called a Node of Ranvier) |
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What is Myelin? |
Myelin is the plasma membrane of a flial cell rolled in concentric layers around an axon. Insulating layer that prevents electrical leakage, speeding conduction and improving ERG eff. |
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How does myelination differ in CNS and PNS? |
- Multiple Schwann Cells myelinate a single axon in PNS - Each oligodendrocyte helps myelinate multiple axons in the CNS |
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What sites of an axon can depolarize? |
Axons can only depolarize where there is no myelin, eg NODES OF RANVIER |
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Events of a chemical Synapse |
1) Action potential reaches terminal 2) Ca++ enters the axon terminal 3) Synaptic vesicles exocytose neurotransmitter 4) Neurotransmitter crosses synaptic cleft and binds to receptors 5) post synaptic nueron does something |
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What are axodendric, axosomatic, and axoaxonic synapses? |
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What happens to the post synaptic cell in an excitory/inhibitory synapse |
Excitory: Depolarizes membrane (Na+ enters) Inibitory: Hyperpolarizes membrane (Cl- enters) |
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Differences and Advantages of Divergent vs convergent circuits (of sensory nerves) |
Divergent: One neuron synapses onto many nuerons. This amplifies the message Convergent: many neurons converge on a single neuron. This incr. sensitivity, but decr. ability to localize |
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Major functions of the Spinal Cord |
1) Innervation: sensory and motory innervations of the body (NOT head) 2) Conduction: Sending signals to and from the brain 3) Reflexes: forming circuit of communication that allows quick response to stimuli via simple loop of afferent and efferent fibers (watch these slides?) |
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Where does the spinal cord end? |
Ends at the L1/L2 vertebra as the MEDULLARY CONE |
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What and why are the largest parts of the spinal cord? |
The cervical and lumbar are enlarged as they contain more neurons to innervate the limbs. (Do we need to know the fig from the course manual? watch lec) |
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How many spinal nerves are associated with each vertebral region? |
Cervical: 8 Thoracic: 12 Lumbar: 5 Sacral: 5 Coocygeal: 1 Note: these are pairs yo. |
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Where do the spinal nerves exit the spinal column relative to their respective vertebra? |
Cervical: exit ABOVE vertebra with same # Thoracic, Lumbar and Sacral: exit BELOW the vertebra with the same # - The nerve roots get longer as you descend the vertebral column |
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What is the cauda equina and why does it form? |
Even though spinal cord ends at L1/L2, the ROOTS for more caudal spinal nerves descend within the vertebral canal before exiting through the correct intervertebral foramen -So it is just under the medullary cone and looks like a horses' tail DEVELOPMENT: vertebra grow much faster than the spinal cord and the segments lose their alignment |
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What are the protective layers of the spinal cord? |
From outside to in: 1) Dura matter: tough mother 2) Arachnoid: Spider like 3) Pia matter: tender mother (maybe should listen to this slide?) |
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Relative positions and contents of: arachnoid, dura mater, epidural space, pia mater, subarachnoid space, sub dural space (spinal cord) |
Position from outside to in (contents) 1) epidural space (adipose) 2) dura mater 3) subdural space 4) arachnoid 5) subarachnoid space (CSF) 6)Pia mater - denticulate ligaments that prevent side to side movement of spinal cord (know specializations of this slide?) |
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Where is it safest to perform a spinal tap? |
- Safest to perform a spinal tap in the lumbar region - Large subarchnoid space makes it easy to insert needle and withdraw CSF - |
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What is menegitis and why is it so dangerous |
Menegitis is inflammation of the meninges (aka dur, arachnoid, and pia mater) Figure the rest out |
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Basic regions of the brain and their spatial relationships |
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Composition and location of gray matter in brain (what is cortex, and nucleus?) |
Gray matter is aggregations of cell bodies in the brain. The cortex is the outer layer while the nuclei are deep inside the brain |
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Composition and location of white matter in brain |
White matter is inside the cortex around the nuclei. It is tracts (axons) |
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Locate the lateral, third and fourth ventricle as well as the interverticular foramen and cerebral aqueduct |
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Describe the three fxs of CSF |
1) Metabolic - Deliver nutrients/remove waste from brain - Fluid balance 2) Buoyancy - Reduces effective weight of the brain 3) Cushioning - Shock absorption |
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What parts of the spinal cord are grey matter? What is contained? |
INTERNAL part of spinal cord - Dorsal horn - Lateral horn - Ventral horn Contains ALL the nerve cell bodies Cell bodies are seperated by fx and are organized into nuclei |
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Dorsal horn content and purpose |
Contents: cells bodies Purpose: recive SOMATOSENSORY and Viscerosensory information |
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Lateral horn content and purpose (also where is it present [vertebra]) |
Content: grey matter, contains VISCEROMOTOR cell bodies - ONLY PRESENT FROM T1-L2 and S2-S4
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Ventral horn content and purpose |
Contains SOMATOMOTOR cell bodies for skeletal muscles |
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Dorsal root ganglion: type of cells or axons and identification |
-Contains cell bodies for all INCOMING sensory info at this level - contains UNIPOLAR cells w. central and peripheral processes - incoming sensory info can ascend to brain or synapse in spinal cord for a reflex |
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Describe tissue types that hold axons together in a nerve |
Epineurum: encloses entire nerve (all axons) Perineurium: Wraps around bundles/fasciles of axons Endoneurium: Around individual axons |
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ascending and descending tracts of spinal column (name and identify) |
![Ascending [Sensory]: Dosal sipnocerebellar tract (DCST), Dorsal columns, latera spinothalmic tract (anterolateral system ALS)
Descending: Lateral corticospinal tract (LCST),](https://images.cram.com/images/upload-flashcards/39/58/64/13395864_m.jpg)
Ascending [Sensory]: Dosal sipnocerebellar tract (DCST), Dorsal columns, latera spinothalmic tract (anterolateral system ALS) Descending: Lateral corticospinal tract (LCST), |
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Dorsal spinocerebellar tract (DSCT) - kind of info involved
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DCST: - carries info from sensory reception in the skeletal muscles (muscle spindles and golgi tendon organs) - This info is involved in reflexes - Supplies CEREBELLUM with info about the muscle [UNCONSCIOUS proprioception] |
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DCST: where are neurons (1st and 2nd order) located, does it cross to contralateral side? |
DCST 1st order - in dorsal root ganglion send ->synapse on 2nd order in dorsal horn->2nd order ascends in DCST and terminates in CEREBELLUM (no cross to contralateral) |
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Location and termination of Dorsal Column Neurons (orders+ pathway) |
1st order axon ascends to brain stem ->synapses on 2nd order -> 2nd order CROSSES to contralateral side and synapses on 3rd order neuron -> 3rd order neuron ascends to CEREBRAL CORTEX |
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Deficits after damage/ dorsal column lesion (incl ips/contra) |
Damage to dorsal column lesion results in: Ipsilateral loss of: - fine touch - Vibration sense - Concious proprioception |
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Location and termination of Anterolateral/Spinothalmic Tract Neurons |
1st order neurons in DRG -> Synapse immeadiately on 2nd order neurons in DORSAL HORN -> axons cross to contralateral side and ascend in spinothalmic tract -> synapse on third order neurons in THALAMUS - > ascend to CEREBRAL CORTEX |
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What sensory info is carried in the Anterolateral/spinothalmic nuerons? |
Pain and temperature (may want to see if there are others) |
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Effects of lesions in the Dorsal horn |
Ipsilateral loss of pain and temperature sensation |
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Effects of lesions in the spinothalamic tract |
Contralateral loss of pain and temperature |
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Effects of lesions in the DSCT (incl ips or contralateral) |
Deficits are ALWAYS ipsilateral Effect is incoordination |
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Effects of damage to the upper and lower motor neurons and effects on muscle contractions (body parts these neurons are in) |
- if the upper motor neurons (cerebral cortex) are damaged, muscles can still contract through reflexes - if the lower motor neurons (ventral horn) are damages, muscles can NEVER contract |
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Implications of Upper Motor Neuron Syndrome |
Symptoms: - Muscle weakness - Muscles can contract by REFLEX - No atrophy |
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Definitions of a dermatome |
A section of skin innervated by a single spinal nerve (there is overlap from the nerves above and below) |
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How can dermatomes be used to make clinical observations? |
Clinical relevance/diagnosis - level of spinal cord lesion - level of a herniated disc - level to anesthetize - level involved in shingles (Watch this?) |
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Viral infection that presents with a dermatomal distribution |
shingles |
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What is a plexus and what is it formed by? |
A plexus is formed when multiple VENTRAL rami come together than proceed to their targets - Spinal nerves don't all travel seperately to their targets |
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The three major plexuses and their areas of distribution/motor fx |
brachial plexus: innervates the upper limb - forms nerves that innervate either anterior or posterior muscles lumbar plexus: innervates the lower limb - sacral plexus: innervates the lower limb |
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5 terminal branches of radial plexus and their motor functions |
Brachial plexus innervates upper limb 1) Axillary nerve: innervates shoulder (deltoid, teres minor) 2) Radial nerve: innervates muscles in posterior arm and forearm (triceps brachii & extensor digitorum) 3) Musculocutaneous nerve: innervates muscles in the anterior arm (biceps brachii) 4) Median nerve: innervates muscles in the anterior forearm (flexor digitorum superficialis) 5) Ulnar nerves innervate muscles in the anterior hand |
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Name the two large branches of the lumbar plexus that supply most of the muscles in the anterior and medial thigh [and their motor targets] |
- Femoral nerve supplies the anterior thigh muscles (quadriceps femoris) - Obturator nerve supplies the medial thigh muscles (adductors) |
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Name the two large branches of the largest nerve (also what's its name) of the sacral plexus innervating the posterior thigh and the entire leg and foot muscles. Describe their motor targets. |
Sciatic Nerve splits into: TIBIAL: posterior thigh, leg and foot as well as hammys, soleus, gastrocnemius, ect. COMMON FIBULAR: anterior leg and foot, tibialis anterior |
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What are the layers of meniges that protect the brain? (Also Spaces in btwn them) |
From outside to in 1) Dura Mater -Venous Sinus (btwn 2 layers of Dura) 2) Dura Mater (inner layer) 3) Arachnoid - Arachnoid granulations - Subarachnoid space 4) Pia Mater (may need to add to this) |
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path CSF follows in brain/ where is it produced and resorbed |
Lateral Ventricle -> Intraventricular foramen -> 3rd Ventricle -> Cerebral Aqueduct -> fourth ventricle -> out to subarachnoid space/to central canal of spinal cord - CSF is produced continuosly by the Choroid plexuses in the ventricles - CSF returns to venous ciculations via the arachnoid granulations/arachnoid villi |
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Structure and fx of blood brain barrier |
A) Capillaries in brain have tight junctions between endothelial cells -Regular access to brain tissue - Except for fat-soulble molecules B) All brain tissue drains into dural venous sinuses - all dural venous sinuses drain into the internal jugular vein |
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Epidural vs Subdural hematoma: - Location - Arterial/Venous defect - Severity |
Location: - Epidural hematomas are blood accumulation OUTSIDE of dura, Subdural = Deep to dura - Epidural hematomas = Arterial bleed, subdural hematomas = venous bleed - Epidural hematomas = RAPID incr in intracranial pressure, Subdural hematomas = SLOW incr. - Epidural hematomas = IMMEADIATE Medical attn, Subdural hematomas = wait and watch |
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Types of strokes (Frequency) |
Ischemic (85%) - blocked blood vessel Hemorrhagic (15%) - Torn blood vessel |
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3 fiber types found in spinal nerves and their targets |
Somatomotor: move skeletal muscle - limbs - body wall 2) Somatosensory: Sense pain, touch, temp - skin 3) Visceromotor (Sympathetic): Move smooth or cardiac muscle and affect secretion by glands |
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4 possible Fiber types found in crainial nerves and their targets |
1) Somatomotor: move skel muscle - eyes - chewing muscles - facial muscles - toungue - swallowing 2) Somatosensory: Sense pain, touch and temp from anterior head - Face - teeth and tounge - cornea - inside your nose 3) Visceromotor (parasympathetic): Move smooth or cardiac muscle, effect secretion by glands - crying - salivating - mucus secretion - Heart rate - Gut motility 4) Special sensory -all senses except touch + balance |
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Which type of nerve fiber is found in every spinal nerve, but NOT in crainial nerves? |
Sympathetic |
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Crainial Nerve I: - Name - Site of orgin - Fiber types - Fx(s) |
- Olfactory Nerve - Cerebrum - Special Sensory - Smell |
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Crainial Nerve II: - Name - Site of orgin - Fiber types - Fx(s) |
- Optic nerve - Cerebrum - Special Sensory - Vision |
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Cranial Nerve III: - Name- Site of orgin- Fiber types- Fx(s) |
- Oculomotor Nerve - Midbrain - 1) Somatomotor 2) Visceromotor (parasympathetic) - 1) Moves eyeball and opens eyelid - 2) Constricts pupil & changes lens shape |
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Crainial Nerve IV: - Name- Site of orgin- Fiber types- Fx(s) |
- Trochlear Nerve - Midbrain - Somatomotor - Moves Eyeball |
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Cranial Nerve V: - Name- Site of orgin- Fiber types- Fx(s) |
-Trigeminal Nerve - Pons - 1) Somatomotor 2) Somatosensory - 1) Muscles of mastication 2) Pain touch temp from face, eyes and anterior 2/3 of tounge |
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Cranial Nerve VI: - Name- Site of orgin- Fiber types- Fx(s) |
- Abducens Nerve - Pons - Somatomotor - Moves Eyeball |
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Cranial Nerve VII: - Name- Site of orgin- Fiber types- Fx(s) |
- Facial Nerve - Pons - 1) Somatomotor 2) Special Sensory 3) Visceromotor (parasymp) 4) Somatosensory - 1) Muscles of facial expression (incl. closing eye) -2) TASTE from anterior 2/3 of tounge - 3) Motor to glands of head (EXCEPT PAROTID GLAND) 4) Pain, touch, temp from EAR |
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Cranial Nerve VIII: - Name- Site of orgin- Fiber types- Fx(s) |
-Vestibulocochlear Nerve - Medulla -1) Special Sensory 2) Special Sensory -1) Hearing (cochlea) 2) Balance (vestibular system) |
Kinda has ocho in the middle of the name |
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Cranial Nerve IX: - Name- Site of orgin- Fiber types- Fx(s) |
- Glossopharyngeal Nerve - Medulla - 1) Somatomotor 2) Special Sensory 3) Visceromotor (parasymp) 4) Somatosensory - 1) 1 muscle of pharynx 2) taste from posterior 1/3 of tounge 3) Motor to parotid gland 4) Pain, touch temp from ear & upper esophagus |
Nine has 4 letters = 4 fiber types |
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Cranial Nerve X: - Name- Site of orgin- Fiber types- Fx(s) |
-Vagus Nerve - Medulla - 1) Somatomotor 2) Special Sensory 3) Visceromotor (parasymp) 4) Somatosensory - 1) muscles of pharynx, larynx, and palate 2) Taste from epiglottis 3) Motor to <3, respiratory system, upper gi tract 4) PTT from ear, pharnynx, larynx |
Cross => stride => Strider => wanderer |
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Cranial Nerve XI: - Name- Site of orgin- Fiber types- Fx(s) |
Cranial Nerve XI: - Spinal Accessory nerve - Spinal Cord - Somatomotor - motor to sternocleidomastoid and trapezius |
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Cranial Nerve XII: - Name- Site of orgin- Fiber types- Fx(s) |
Cranial Nerve XII: - Hypoglossal Nerve - Medulla - Somatomotor - Motor to muscles of tounge |
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Identify the Medulla Oblangata and list the bodily fxs that arise from it and crainial nerves that arise from it |
- Located at bottom anterior portion of brainstem - Contains the 4th ventricle - Crainial Nerves: VIII, IX, X, and XII - Centers for Respiration, BP, HR ----2nd order neurons for dorsal column |
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Identify the two major fiber tracts in the medulla oblangata. Which is ascending and descending? What type of info do they carry? |
1) Lateral Corticospinal tract (LCST): -Descending - Voluntary motor fibers from cerebral cortex 2) Dorsal Spinocerebellar Tracts (DSCT) - Ascending - Unconcious Proprioception to cerebellum |
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Types of nuclei (and their fx) in the medulla oblongata and the conequences of damage to each type of nucleus. Contrast the consequences of damage to each type of nucleus |
1) Motor Nuclei - send motor instructions to targets via cranial nerves 2) Sensory Nuclei - relay sensory info from spinal and crainial nerves to cerebellum and cerebrum |
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Pons: - identify it - What cranial nerves arise from it? - what segement of ventricular system is inside it |
- Just superior to medulla oblangata - CN: V, VI, VII - contains 4th ventricle |
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Midbrain: - identify it - What cranial nerves arise from it? - what segement of ventricular system is inside it |
- just superior to the pons - Gives rise to CN III and IV - Contains Cerebral Aqueduct |
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Locate the LCST, Cerebral aqueduct, and substantia nigra in the midbrain |
LCST = green zone Substantia nigra = brown boomerangs CA = blue dot |
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Where is the Substantia Nigra found and what is its general fx? |
Location: in the Midbrain Fx: involved with control of voluntary movement (neurons degenerate in parkinsons) |
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3 importants fxs of the Cerebellum (ips/contra connections to body?) |
1) Coordination of movement 2) Posture 3) Equilibrium - Connections btwn cerebellum and the body are ipsilateral! |
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What are the two inputs to the cerebellum, and what does the cerebellum do if there is a discrepency between its two inputs? |
Inputs: 1) Cerebral Motor Cortex - Tells cerebellum what the brain WANTS to do 2) Body - proprioceptors from DCST - Inner ear via CN VIII Discrepency - I THINK cerebellum sends signals to cerebral motor cortex to adjust/correct motor ouptut after comparing what the brain wants to do vs what the body is actually doing |
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Pathway by which signals from cerebellum effect the body |
Cerebellum -> Cerebral motor cortex (upper motor neurons) -> via LCST ->Skeletal Muscles |
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Differences between the Cerebrum and cerebellum in terms of location and general fx (also which contains upper motor neurons) |
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Main fx of the thalamus |
- Processes sensory information, then sends it to the cerebral cortex - each nucleus relays input to a particular region of the cerebral cortex - all sensory input (except olfactory) synapses in the thalamus |
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What type of sensory input is not relayed through the thalamus? |
Olfactory |
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What are the six basic fxs of the hypothalamus |
1) Autonomic NS (HR, BP, GI, Glands) 2) Hunger and thirst (satisfy centers) 3) Motivational behaviour (reward system, sexual behavior) 4) Body temp (sweating, fever ect) 5) Endocrine system (controls pit. gland) 6) Sleep-Wake cycles - Controls the Internal environment |
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What dural reflection lies in the longitudinal fissure? |
The Falx Cerebri - veins run in the edges of dural reflections |
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What dural reflection lies in the transverse fissure |
Tentorium cerebelli |
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Difference between a gyrus and a sulcus |
folds = gyri groove = sulci |
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Identify the locations of the central sulcus and lateral sulcus |
Central sulcus = purple Lateral sulcus = Yellow |
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Major fx(s) of frontal lobe of cerebral cortex |
- Somatomotor - Production of language - Intuition, working memory, 'executive fx' |
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Major fx(s) of Parietal lobe |
Somatosensory |
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Major fx(s) of Temporal lobe of cerebral cortex |
- Auditory cortex - olfaction - Comprehension of language |
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Major fx of insula of cerebral cortex |
- Taste - Visceral sensation |
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Describe the three general types of functional areas of cerebral cortex |
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SIR |
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Identify primary sensory cortical areas for: - Somatic Sensation - taste - balance - olfaction - audition - vision |
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Identify (name) and locate Primary somatosensory cortex |
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First part of name sorta describes its location on the brain. Second part is kinda related to move |
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What is the significance of the Sensory Homunculus? |
- Postcentral Gyrus is organized topographically - More sensory receptors in certain body area = larger area of cortex devoted to sensation from that area |
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Identify primary motor cortex and premotor cortex. What are the fxtional differences between the two areas? (Incl Which uses what spinal tract) |
Premotor cortex: plans / coordinates complex movements - Sends plans to primary motor cortex Primary motor cortex: Sends motor instructions to skel muscles (via LCST) |
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Locate the two language processing areas of the brain. In what hempishere are they usually found? |
2 Areas: 1) Broca's Area 2) Wernicke's Area - Usually found in the LEFT hemisphere |
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What would appear due to damage to Broca's Area? (Also specific term) |
Excessive Aphasia - Can understand language, but cannot produce speech (or written language) |
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What would appear due to damage to Wernicke's Area? (Also specific term) |
Receptive Aphasia -Cannot understand language, but can produce speech (incomprehensible) |
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Difference in fx of Broca's area and Wernicke's Area |
Broca's area: Production of speech - sends signals to motor area to initiate movements for speech Wernicke's area: Comprehension of speech - near auditory cortex - recognition and understanding of written and spoken language |
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Differentiate between the three types of white matter in the brain and how they connect different areas of the brain |
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Identify the three main structures of the limbic system and what are their fxs? |
![1) Cingulate Gyrus: Response to emotions [belt]
- outputs to cerebral cortex and hypothalamus
2) Hippocampus: Long term Memory [seahorse]
- encoding, consolidating, retrieving
3) Amygdala: fear [almond]
- initiates 'fight or flight' response](https://images.cram.com/images/upload-flashcards/41/45/45/13414545_m.jpg)
1) Cingulate Gyrus: Response to emotions [belt] - outputs to cerebral cortex and hypothalamus 2) Hippocampus: Long term Memory [seahorse] - encoding, consolidating, retrieving 3) Amygdala: fear [almond] - initiates 'fight or flight' response |
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Sympathetic vs Parasympathetic: Orgin |
sympathetic: Lateral horn of grey matter of spinal cord segments T1-L2 parasympathetic: Brains stem nuclei of cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X; Spinal cord segments S2-S4 |
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Sympathetic vs Parasympathetic: Location of ganglia |
Sympathetic: Ganglia close to CNS; alongside vertbral colum and anterior to vertebral column. Parasympathetic: Ganglia in or close to visceral ORGAN served |
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Sympathetic vs Parasympathetic: Fiber Length |
Sympathetic: Shore preganglionic (except for splanchich nerves), long ganglionic Parasympathetic: Long preganglionic, short ganglionic |
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Sympathetic vs Parasympathetic: Postganglionic neurotransmitters |
Sympathetic: Most = Norepinephrein; some ACh (skel muscles), adrenal medularry hormones Parasympathetic: ALL release Ach |
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Where are the preganglionic cell bodies of the sympathetic division located? |
"Thoraco-lumbar" - Located from T1-L2 in the lateral horn of grey matter |
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What are grey and white communicating rami?[locations as well] (sympathetic nervous system) |
White "on ramp": - IN to the sympathetic chain - Myelinated, preganglionic - T1-L2 only Gray "off ramp": - OUT of sympathetic chain - Unmyelinated - Postganglionic - ALL Spinal nerves |
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Where do synapses occur in the sympathetic pathway to the bodywall/skin of the trunk? |
- At any level of the sympathetic chain |
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Where do synapses occur in the sympathetic pathway to the head/upper limbs? |
-preganglionic axons originate in T1-T4 - ascend in sympathetic trunk to synapse the superior cervical ganglion |
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Describe the pathway of sympathetics to the internal organs (incl. what vertebra). Where do synapses occur in these pathways? |
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How is the adrenal gland part of the autonomic nervous system? |
- the Adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine or norephinephrine in response to sympathetic stimulation - Adrenal medulla acts as the post sympathetic neuron |
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How is the sympathetic pathway to the adrenal medulla differnt than the rest of the body? |
- Only one nueron - Adrenal medulla acts as the postganglionic neuron and releases EPI into the blood stream |
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Oculomotor Parasympathetic Pathway - CN - effects - presynaptic ganglia - postsynaptic ganglia |
- CN III - Constricts pupil and contracts ciliary muscle (focus on close objects) -Brain stem (lateral horn of sacral spinal cord) -Cilliary ganglion |
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Facial nerve Parasympathetic Pathway - CN - effects - presynaptic ganglia - postsynaptic ganglia
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- CN VII - targes lacrimal, nasal mucus, and salivary gland - Brain stem (lateral horn of sacral spinal cord) - Pterygopalatine ganglion |
Postsynaptic is like a flying dinosaur + star wars emperor |
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Glossophayngeal Nerve Parasympathetic Pathway - CN - effects - presynaptic ganglia - postsynaptic ganglia |
- CN IX - targets salivary gland - Brain stem (lateral horn of sacral spinal cord) - Submandipular ganglion |
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Vagus Nerve Parasympathetic Pathway - CN - effects - presynaptic ganglia - postsynaptic ganglia |
- CN X - Wanders through abdomen (thoracic organs): Slows HR, incr. Digestion - Brain stem (lateral horn of sacral spinal cord) - Terminal ganglia in organ walls |
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Pelvic Splanics Parasympathetic Pathway - Begging ganglia - effects - areas - |
- Begins in Pelvic splanchnics (S2-S4) in the lateral horn: Exis via ventral rami - increases rate of digestion, urination and defecation; sexual arousal - terminal ganglia in hindgut and pelvic organs |
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What is the inferior limit for the vagus nerve? |
Halfway along the large intesting / (small intestine?) |
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What is referred pain? (Also what fibers synapse where) |
-Visceral sensory fibers synapse in dorsal horn shared with somatic sensory fibers - Pain is sensed in corresponding dermatome
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Where might pain be referred to in a heart attack? |
Patient's left pectoral area/arm underside and left cheek/neck |
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Where might pain be referred to in case of gall stones? |
A
- Patient's left shoulder - Patients right ~2nd ab of a six pack |
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Where might pain be referred to for appendicitis? |
Patients right side abs |
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Where might pain be referred to for kidney stones? |
Dermatome of area covered by a really high waisted short skirt |
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Where might liver pain be referred to? |
- Right deltoid - just under center-right pectoral |
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where are the cell bodies of general sensory neurons located (CNS/PNS) |
Dorsal root ganglia (PNS) |
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Cell Body location (CNS/PNS): Somatomotor neurons |
Ventral horn of spinal cord gray matter (CNS) |
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Cell Body location (CNS/PNS): Preganglionic sympathetic neurons |
Lateral horn of the spinal cord gray matter T1-L2 (CNS) |
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Cell Body location (CNS/PNS): Postganglionic sympathetic neurons |
Sympathetic chain ganglia or collateral ganglia (PNS) |
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Cell Body location (CNS/PNS): Preganglionic parasympathetic neurons |
Lateral horn of spinal cord gray matter S2-S4 (CNS) |
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Cell Body location (CNS/PNS): Postganglionic parasympathetic neurons |
Terminal ganglia near or in wall of effector organ (PNS) |
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Fundamental mechanism of special senses |
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Location, structure and fx of taste buds |
- Location: Surface of tongue (on papillae - Structure: chemoreceptors? - Fx: 2 cell types: Tast cells and basal cells |
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5 basic tastes |
1) Salty 2) Umami (mushrooms and tomatoes?) 3) Sweet 4) Sour 5) Bitter |
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What cranial nerves carry taste from what part of tongue? |
-VII Facial Nerve (most posterior) - IX Glossopharyngeal Nerve (Middle/back) - X Vagus Nerve (very back) |
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Pathway for taste sensation from tongue to (what) cortex? |
1st order neurons: CN VII/IX/X -> via Sensory ganglia for VII/IX/X -> 2nd order neurons: Brainstem -> 3rd order neurons Thalamus -> Gustatory Cortex (insula) |
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Locate (and name) the sensory cells for smell |
- Olfactory bulb (btwn frontal cortex and nasal cavity) |
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Structure of olfactory sensory neurons (incl where they synapse) |
- axons pass through ethmoid bone
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Pathway for olfactory information |
1st order neuron: olfactory sensory neurons -> via CNI -> 2nd order neurons: olfactory bulbs -> primary olfactory cortex OR hypothalmus OR Limbic System |
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what three areas of the brain receive olfactory info and what is their fx with that info? |
1) Primary olfactory cortex - conscious of smell 2) Hypothalamus - Motivation (appetite; hunger/satisfy centers) 3) Limbic system - Emotion & memory |
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Which lobe of the cerebrum contains the primary olfactory cortex? |
Uncus on the piriform region of the Temporal Lobes? (check dis) |
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Functions of external ear |
Hearing only |
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Fx of Middle ear (filled with air or fluid) |
![- Hearing only (Transmit vibrations of tympanic membrane {via oval window} to inner ear [cochlea])
- air filled cavity within temporal bone](https://images.cram.com/images/upload-flashcards/42/73/40/13427340_m.jpg)
- Hearing only (Transmit vibrations of tympanic membrane {via oval window} to inner ear [cochlea]) - air filled cavity within temporal bone |
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What are the three ossicles of middle ear and what order are they arranged in [btwn what] |
![[tympanic membrane] -> Malleus ->Incus->Stapes -> [oval window]
- hammer anvil stirrup](https://images.cram.com/images/upload-flashcards/42/74/06/13427406_m.jpg)
[tympanic membrane] -> Malleus ->Incus->Stapes -> [oval window] - hammer anvil stirrup |
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Significance and fx of tensor tempani muscle |
- Skeletal muscle in middle ear (connected to malleus) - fx: reduce vibration of ossicle: Protects inner ear from loud sounds |
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Significance and fx of stapedius muscle |
- Skeletal muscle in middle ear (connected to stapes) - fx: reduce vibration of ossicle: Protects inner ear from loud sounds |
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Significant and fx of auditory/Eustachian tube |
- Connects the middle ear to nasal cavity - fx - ????? |
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What is otitis media?
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- infection of the middle ear ("ear inflammation") - infection starts as throat infection - spreads through pharyngotympanic tube - fluid and pus buildup causes pain - more common in kids due to pharyngotympanic tube is shorter |
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Identify the bony structures of the inner ear. |
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What skull bone are the bony structures of the inner ear located within? |
Temporal bone |
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What fluid fills the structures of the bony labyrinth? |
- Filled with perilymph - this is continuous w CSF in subarchnoid space |
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Structures of the membranous labrynth |
1) Semicircular ducts 2) utricle and saccule 3) cochlear duct contains sensory receptors for hearing |
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What fluid fills the membranous labyrinth? |
endolymph |
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What cranial nerve carries sensory information from the inner ear and what are its divisions? |
1) CN VIII - cochlear division - Spiral ganglion (i think) |
Letter of nerve number starts with same letter as ear |
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Label the three segments of the cochlea, identify the sensory organ for hearing |
top to bottom: - Scala Vestibuli - Cochlear duct (scala media) - Scala tympani Sensory organ for hearing: Organ of corti (red box, not pink part) |
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Which segment of the cochlea connects to the Oval window, and which segment connects to the round window? |
Oval window: Scala Vestibuli Round window: Scala Tympani |
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Pathway sound erg takes to sensocy receptor for hearing |
Tympanic membrane ->ossicles ->oval window->perilymph in scala vestibuli -> endolymph in cochlear duct ->perilymph in scala tympani - > round window |
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What sensory organs are in the semicircular canals? What do they sense |
Semi circular ducts - sense angular acceleration in a plane- sensory apparatus is in ampulla of each duct Sensory apparatus in semicicular ducts = Crista Ampullaris: fluid bends hair [cupula movement] that then generates electrical signal |
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What sensory organs are in the utricle and saccule and what do the sense? |
- Endolympth moves the otolits and disk -> hairs bend -> electrical signals generated - sense Linear acceleration |
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Functional relationship btwn eye and eyelid |
eyelids protect the eyeball |
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Fxtional relationship btwn eye and conjuctiva |
Conjuctiva provides nourishment to tissue |
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Fxtional relationship btwn eye and lacrimal system |
Lacrimal apparatus: produces tears - Keeps cornea moist |
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Which skeletal muscle opens the eyelid (CN) |
Levator Palpebrae (CN III - Oculomotor Nerve) |
Word like rise + fancy word for eyeball |
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Which skeletal muscle closes the eyelid (CN) |
Orbicularis Oculi (CN VII - Facial Nerve) |
Kinda like orbit + occlude |
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Which Smooth muscle opens the eye and how is it innervated? |
- Superior Tarsal Muscle - keeps eye open involuntarily - innervated by sympathetics |
No words that sound like eye |
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Flow of tears [orgin] to [end] |
[Lacrimal gland] ->wash across cornea ->drain into Lacrimal Sac -> through Nasolactimal duct -> into [Nasal Cavity] |
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What CN causes secretion of tears (symp/parasymp) |
Cranial Nerve VII / Facial Nerve (parasympathetic) |
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Three layer of the eyeball |
From outside to in 1) Fibrous 2) Vascular 3) Inner (Neural) |
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Structures of fibrous layer of eye |
1) Cornea 2) Sclera |
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Structures of vascular layer of eye |
1) Iris 2) Cilliary body - around lens 3) Choroid |
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Structures of inner (neural) layer of eye |
Convert light to electrical impulses 1) Retina 2) Optic Nerve (CN III) |
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Function and innervation of Cilliary Muscle |
Fx: Regulates shape of lens innervation - Oculomotor Nerve (CN III) - parasympathetic |
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Which muscle contracts to incr. the size of the pupil? what's its innervation |
-Pupillary dialator - controlled by sympathetics |
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What muscle contracts to decr. the size of the pupil? what's it's innervation? (Also symp/parasymp) |
- Pupillary constrictor - Oculomotor Nerve/ CN III (parasymp) |
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Structure and composition of lens of eye (incl shape for vision distance) |
- Made of epithelia cells - long/thin = mid to long distance sight - short/fat = near vision
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Why does the ability of the lens to change shape decline w. age? (what's this called) |
Because the lens loses elasticity with age (presbyopia) |
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Name the two types of photoreceptors |
Rods and Cones |
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What is the position of the photoreceptors relative to the other layers of the retina |
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Distinguish btwn photoreceptors w. respect to color vision, sensitivity to light, and acuity |
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What are the layers of the retina? |
from front to back of eyeball: Ganglion cells to bipolar cells to photoreceptors. Pigment epithelium is behind. |
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Anatomy of the fovea centralis |
- In the CENTER of the macula lutea - Contains only CONES - Highest visual acuity in retina |
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Why is visual acuity so good in the macula lutea/fovea centralis portion of the eye? |
Because it is aligned with the AP axis of the eye - also highest cone density |
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Describe and explain the pattern of vision loss in macular degeneration |
- Loss of center of vision - due to progressive loss of cells in macula lutea |
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Anatomy of the optic disk |
Where the axons of the ganglion cells pass through all the layers of the retina to exit the eyeball - NO photoreceptors - aka causes blind spot |
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What is myopia and what lens is used to correct it? |
- Nearsighted (light focused in FRONT of retina) - correct with CONCAVE lens |
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What is hyperopia and what lens is used to correct it? |
- farsighted (Light is focused behind retina) - Correct with CONVEX lens |
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Outline visual pathway from ganglion cells to the visual cortex |
Arrows (starting at barely visible top one going ccw) 1) Optic Nerve 2) Optic Tracts 3) Thalamus 4) Primary visual field 5) Optic chiasm |
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If you see an elephant, what would you see if the Right optic nerve was damage? |
Left 5/8s of elephant |
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If you see an elephant, what would you see if the Right optic TRACT was damaged? |
Left 1/2 of elephant |
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Distinguish btwn the signalling fxs of the endocrine and nervous system. (signalling molecules, speed, area of effect) |
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Functions of the endocrine system |
General fx: Homeostasis Specific fxs: - growth - repro organs development - stress response - regulation of blood chemistry - control of metabolic rate - circadian rhythms |
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Compare and contrast exocrine and endocrine glands |
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Name and locate: - Adrenal Gland -Hypothalamus - Pancreas - Parathyroid glands - pineal gland - thymus - thyroid gland |
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Describe the three types of stimulation that regulate secretion of hormones by endocrine glands |
Humoral: level of ions or nutrients IN THE BLOOD affect hormone secretion Neural: Stimulation by NERVE FIBERS Hormonal: HORMONES from other glands |
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Distinguish between the anterior and posterior lobes of pituitary gland in terms of tissue type |
Anterior: Glandular Tissue Posterior: Neural Tissue |
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Which 7 hormones are produced by the anterior pituitary gland? |
1) Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) 2) Andrenocortioctropic hormone (ACTH) 3) Melanocyte Stimulating hormone (MSH) 4) Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) 5) Lutenizing Hormone (LH) 6) Growth Hormone (GH) 7) Prolactin |
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Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) - Production site - Target - Fx |
- Anterior pituitary gland - Thyroid - Incr. production of Thyroid hormone |
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Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH): - Production site - Target - Fx |
- Ant. Pit. - Adrenal Cortex - stimulates the production of corticosteroids |
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MSH: - Production site - Target - Fx |
Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone: - Ant. Pit - Melanocytes in skin - Stimulates production of melanin |
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FSH: - Production site - Target - Fx |
Follicle Stimulating Hormone: - Ant. Pit. - Testis/Ovaries - Stimulates development of gametes and secretion of sex hormones |
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LH: - Production site - Target - Fx |
Luteinizing Hormone: - Ant. Pit. - Testis/Ovaries - Stimulates development of gametes and secretion of sex hormones |
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GH: - Production site - Target - Fx |
Growth Hormone: - Ant. Pit. - THROUGHOUT BODY (incl. Bone and Muscle) - Stimulates growtn (directly or via factors released by liver) |
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Prolactin: - Production site - Target - Fx |
Prolactin: - Ant. Pit - Breast - Stimulates milk production by cells in mammary gland (and more?) - |
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What is the role of the hypothalamus in regulating the fx of the ant pit cells? |
- Hyp. can stimulatere or inhibit ant. pit. - Hypothamic nuerons: - STIMULATE secretion of Luteinizing Hormon - INHIBIT secretion of Growth Hormone |
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Types of blood vessels in the hypophyseal portal system |
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Fx of the Posterior pituitary gland |
releases (DOES NOT produce) Anti-diuretic Hormone and Oxytocin |
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Name the two nuclei in the hypothalamus that have direct projections into the posterior pituitary gland, and the hormones they produce. |
1) Supraoptic Nucleus (inferior) - produces ADH 2) Paraventricular Nucleus (superior) - Produces oxytocin |
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ADH: - Production site - Target - Fx |
Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH) - Supraoptic nucleus in hypothalamus (relased from post pit) - 1) Kidneys 2) Arterioles -1) Incr. Water absorption 2) Contract smooth muscle in walls INCREASES BP! |
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Oxytocin: - Production site - Target - Fx |
Oxytocin: - Paraventricular Nucleus in hypothalamus (released from post. pit.) - Smooth musce in reproductive organs - Induces contraction: Uterine contraction for childbirth, role in socialization? |
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Describe the location of the thyroid gland |
- Located in Neck - ANTERIOR to larynx and trachea - huge blood supply |
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What are the two major cell types in the thyroid gland, and what hormones do they secrete? |
1) Follicular Cells - Thyroid Hormone 2) Parafollicular Cells - Cacitonin |
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Thyroid Hormone: - Production site - Target - Fx |
- Follicular cells in thyroid - - Raises metabolic rate |
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Calcitonin: - Production site - Target - Fx |
Calcitonin: - Parafollicular Cells in thyroid - 1) Kidney 2) Bone - 1) Incr. Calcium excretion 2) reduce osteoclast activity LOWERS CALCIUM LVLS in blood |
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Process by which thyroid hormone is produced |
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What happens to a person's thyroid gland when not enough iodine is taken in? |
Goiter - aka it gets huge |
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Compare and contrast symptoms of hypo/hyper thyroidism |
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Where are the parathyroid glands located and what hormone do they produce? |
- Located on POSTERIOR of thyroid - Secrete Parathyroid hormone (PTH) |
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PTH: - Production site - Target(s) [fx] - overall fx |
Parathyroid Hormone: - Parathyroid Glands - 1) Bone [incr. osteoclast activity] 2) Kidney [reduces Calcium excretion] 3) Intestines [incr. Calcium uptake] - INCREASES CALCIUM LVLS in blood (opposite effect of calcitonin) |
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Difference in regulation of adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla |
Adrenal cortex: - HORMONALLY regulated by Ant. Pit. Adrenal Medulla: - NEURALLY regulated by preganglionic sympathetic neurons (from T1 to L2) both are involved in stress response |
Which one has letters of sympathetic in it? |
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What hormones are released by the adrenal medulla and what effect do they have on the body? |
1) Epinephrine - 2) Norepinephrine - Short term systemic stress response - Incr. HR and BP - Release of Glucose |
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Label the zones of the adrenal cortex. What hormone is produced by each of these zones? |
From top to bottom: 1) Zona Glomerulosa - Aldosterone 2) Zona Fasciculata - Glucocorticoids 3) Zona Reticularis - Glucocorticoids - Androgens 4) Medulla (NOT part of adrenal cortex) |
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Aldosterone (Mineralocorticoids): - Production site - Production trigger - general fx |
Aldosterone (Mineralocorticoids) - Zona Glomerulosa of Adrenal cortex - drop in BP or blood volume - Acts on kidneys to incr. Na+ and H2O ABSORPTION |
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Glucocorticoids (Cortisol): - Production site - Production trigger - general fx |
Glucocorticoids (Cortisol): - Zona Fasiculata and Zona Reticularis of adrenal cortex - Stress - 1) incr. glucose to brain 2) reduces inflammatory and immune responses |
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Adrenal Androgens: - Production site- Production trigger- general fx |
Adrenal Androgens: - Zona Reticularis of Adrenal Cortex - ???? - Unclear |
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Main fx of Pineal Gland |
- Produces Melatonin - Regulates circadian rhythms |
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Name the endocrine structure of the pancreas |
'Pancreatic Islets': Scattered throughout pancreas - Alpha Cells - Beta Cells |
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Alpha Cells - hormone secreted - target cells - effect |
Alpha Cells - glucagon - Liver cells - Release Glucose |
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Beta Cells - hormone secreted - target cells - effect |
Beta Cells: - insulin - 1) Cells of body [take up glucose] 2) liver cells [incr. storage of glucose (as glycogen)] - |
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What are the differences and similarites of type I and type II diabetes? |
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What 'other organs' contain endocrine cells and can secrete hormones? |
- Heart - GI Tract - Kidneys - Skin |
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Name two ways hormones secreted in body can effect the brain |
1) nuerons have receptors for steroid hormones 2) Hormones can activate Satiety Center in Hypothalmus - eneroendocrine cells in gut secrete CCK -> trigger satiety centers Maybe: hormones can cause permanent morphological changes in the brain |
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