Sped 102 Chapter 6 Terms

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Minimal brain injury

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A term used to describe a child who shows behavior but not neurological signs of brain injury; the term is now out of favor, primarily because of its lack of diagnositic utility (ex: some children who learn normally show signs indicative of minimal brain injury)

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The federal definition of learning disability

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A disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken, or written, which disorder may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations. This includes the conditions of perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. This does not include a learning problem that is the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of mental retardation, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage.

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The National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities definition of learning disability

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A general term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning or math abilities. These disorders are intrinsic to the individual, presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction, and may occur across the life span. Problems in self-regulatory behaviors, social perception, and social interaction may exist with learning disabilities but do not by themselves constitute a learning disability. Learning disabilities are not the result of other handicaps such as sensory impairment, mental retardation, serious mental disturbance or cultural differences, insufficient or inappropriate instruction, though they may occur at the same time.

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IQ-achievement discrepancy

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Academic performance markedly lower than would be expected on the basis of a student's intellectual ability

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Response-to-intervention (RTI)

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A way of determining whether a student has a learning disability; increasingly intensive levels of instructional intervention are delivered, and if the student does not achieve, at some point, he or she is determined to have a learning disability or is referred for special education evaluation

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Curriculum-based measurement (CBM)

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A formative evaluation method designed to evaluate performance in the curriculum to which students are exposed; usually involves giving students a small sample of items from the curriculum in use in their schools; it is argued that CBM is better than comparing students based off national norms or using tests that do not reflect the curriculum content being learned by the students

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Progress monitoring

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Brief, frequent measures of performance used to determine whether a student is learning as expected; if student isn't learning as expected, the teacher can make changes to the instruction

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Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

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A neuroimaging technique where radio waves are used to produce cross-sectional images of the brain; used to pinpoint areas of the brain that are dysfunctional

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Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

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An adaptation of the MRI used to detect changes in the brain while it is in an active state; unlike a PET scan, it does not involve using radioactive materials

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Functional magnetic resonance spectroscopy (fMRS)

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An adaptation of the MRI used to detect changes in the brain while it is an active state; unlike a PET scan, it does not involve using radioactive materials

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Positron emission tomography (PET) scans

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A computerized method for measuring bloodflow in the brain; during a cognitive task, a low amount of radioactive dye is injected in the brain, the dye collects in active neurons, indicating which areas of the brain are active

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Left temporal lobe

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An area on the left side of the brain; neuroimaging studies indicate it is responsible for speech, language, and reading abilities and is dysfunctional in persons with reading disabilities

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Familarity studies

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A method of determining the degree to which a given condition is inherited; looks at the prevalence of the condition in relatives of the person with the condition

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Heritability studies

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A method of determining the degree to which a condition is inherited; a comparison of the prevalence of a condition in identical twins vs. fraternal twins

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Teratogens

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Agents, such as chemicals, that can disrupt the normal development of the fetus; a possible cause of learning disabilities and other learning and behavioral problems

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Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

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Abnormalities associated with the mother's drinking alcohol during pregnancy; defects range from mild to severe

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Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders

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A range of disorders whose mothers consumed large quantities of alcohol during pregnancy

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Decoding

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The ability to convert print to spoken language, dependent on phonemic awareness and understanding of the alphabetic principles; a big problem for many people with reading disabilities

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Phonological awareness

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The ability to understand that speech flow can be broken into smaller sound units such as words, syllables, and phonemes; generally thought to be the reason for the reading problems of many students with learning disabilities

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Phonemic awareness

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One's ability to understand that words are made up of sounds, or phonemes

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Reading fluency

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The ability to read effortlessly and smoothly; consists of the ability to read at a normal rate and with appropriate expression; influences one's reading comprehension

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Reading comprehension

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The ability to understand what one has read

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Syntax

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The way words are joined together to structure meaningful sentences (ex: grammar)

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Semantics

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The study of the meanings attached to words

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Phonology

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The study of how individual sounds make up words

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Pragmatics

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The study of within psycholinguistics of how people use language in social situations; emphasizes the functional use of language, rather than mechanics

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Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

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A condition characterized by severe problems of inattention, hyperactivity, and/or implusivity; often found in people with learning disabilities

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Short-term memory (STM)

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The ability to recall information after a short period of time

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Working memory (WM)

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The ability to remember information while also performing other cognitive operations

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Metacognition

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One's understanding of the strategies available for learning a task and the regulatory mechanisms needed to complete the task

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Three components of metacogniton

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1. Recognize task requirements
2. Select and implement appropriate strategies
3. Monitor and adjust performance

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Comprehension monitoring

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The ability to keep track of one's comprehension of reading material and to make adjustments to comprehend better while reading; often deficient in students with learning disabilities

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Nonverbal learning disabilities

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A term used to refer to individuals who have a cluster of disabilities in social interaction, math, visual-spatial tasks, and tactual tasks

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Locus of control

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A motivational term referring to how people explain their successes or failures; people with an internal locus of control believe that they are the reason for success or failure, whereas people with an external locus of control believe that outside forces influence how they perform

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Learned helplessness

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A motivational term referring to a condition in which a person believes that no matter how hard he or she tries, failure will result

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Four major instructional approaches to help the academic problems of students with learning disabilities

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1. Cognitive training
2. Content enhancement
3. Direct instruction
4. Peer tutoring

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Cognitive training

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A group of training procedures designed to change thoughts or thought patterns

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Three components of cognitive training

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1. Changing thought processes
2. Providing strategies for learning
3. Teaching self-initiative

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Self-instruction

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A type of cognitive training technique that requires individuals to talk aloud and then to themselves as they solve problems

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Self-monitoring

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A type of cognitive training technique that requires individuals to keep track of their own behavior

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Scaffolded instruction

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A cognitive approach to instruction in which the teacher provides temporary structure or support while students are learning a task; the support is gradually removed as the students are able to perform the task independently

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Reciprocal teaching

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A cognitive teaching strategy where the student gradually assumes the role of co-instructor for brief periods; the teacher models four strategies for the students to use:
1. Predicting
2. Questioning
3. Summarizing
4. Clarifying

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Content enhancement

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The modification of curriculum materials to make them more salient or prominent ex: graphic organizers and mnemonics

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Graphic organizers

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A way of enhancing content visual displays using lines, circles, and boxes to organize information

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Mnemonics

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The use of memory-enchaning cues to help one remember something

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Direct instruction (DI)

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A method of teaching academics, especially reading and math; emphasizes drill and practice and immediate feedback; lessons are precisely sequenced, fast-paced, and well-rehearsed by the teacher

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Task analysis

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The procedure of breaking down an academic task into its component parts for the purpose of instruction; a major feature of direct instruction

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Classwide peer tutoring (CWPT)

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An instructional procedure in which all students in the class are involved in tutoring and being tutored by classmates on specific skills as directed by their teacher

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Baseline data point

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Used in CBM, the beginning score gathered before an intervention begins ex: the number of correct words per minute that a student reads before receiving a fluency intervention

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Expected growth norms

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Used with CBM; the rate at which the average student is expected to learn given typical instruction

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Aim line

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Used in CBM; based on expected growth norms, a line drawn from the baseline data point to the anticipated end of instruction

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Informal reading inventory (IRI)

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A method of assessing reading in which the teacher has the student read progressively more difficult series of word lists and passages; the teacher notes the difficulty level of the material read and the types of errors the student makes

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Error analysis

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An informal method of teacher assessment that involves the teacher noting the particular kinds of errors a student makes when doing academic work

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Standardized achievement assessment

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A method of evaluating a person that has been applied to a large group so that an individual's score can be compared to the norm, or average