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160 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Cognitively based attitudes
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based mostly on people's beliefs about the properties of the attitude object
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Affectively based attitudes
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based more on people's emotions and values
-they can be created through classical conditioning or operant conditioning |
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Behaviorally based attitudes
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based on people's actions toward the attitude object
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Explicit attitudes
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ones we consciously endorse and can easily report
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Implicit attitudes
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involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious
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Counterattudinal advocacy for low external justification
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people find internal justification for their behavior, bringing their attitude in line with their behavior
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Effectiveness of persuasive communication depends on:
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-aspects of the communicator/source of the message
-aspects of the message itself -aspects of the audience |
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Elaboration likelihood model
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specidies when people are persuaded more by the strength of the arguments in communication and when they are persuaded more by surface characteristics
-Central route to persuasion or -Peripheral route to persuasion |
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Central route to persuasion
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When people have both the motivation and the ability to pay close attention to a message. Pay close attention to the strength of the arguments.
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Peripheral route to persuasion
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When people have low motivation or ability to pay close attention to a message, they are swayed by surface characteristics, such as the attractiveness of the speaker
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Fear arousing communications
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can cause lasting attitude change if a moderate amount of fear is aroused and people believe they will be reassured by the content of the message
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Emotions can be used as heuristics to gauge one's attitude...
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If people feel good in the presence of an object, they often infer that they like it, even if these good feelings were caused by something else
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Attitude Inoculation
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One way people can avoid being influences by persuasive messages. Expose people to small doses of arguments against their positions, which makes it easier for them to defend themselves against a persuasive message they hear later
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Ways people can avoid being influenced by persuasive messages:
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-Attitude Inoculation
-Raising awareness about product placement -Teaching kids how to resist peer pressure -Reactance Theory |
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Reactance Theory
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People experience an unpleasant state called REACTANCE when their freedom of choice is threatened. Attempts to manage people's attitudes can backfire if they make people feel that their choice is limited
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Attitude accessibility
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the strength of the association between an object and an evaluation of it
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When will attitudes predict behavior?
Predicting Spontaneous Behaviors: |
-Attitudes predict spontaneous behaviors only when they are relatively accessible
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When will attitudes predict behavior?
Predicting Deliberative Behaviors: |
According to the THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIOR, deliberative behaviors are a function of:
-People's attitude toward the specific act in question -Subjective norms (people's beliefs about how others view the behavior in question) -How much people believe they can control the behavior |
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How advertising works:
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Advertising works by:
-Targeting affectively based attitudes with emotions -Targeting cognitively based attitudes with facts -By making a product seem personally relevant |
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Acquisition
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The process by which people notice and pay attention to information in the environment; because people cannot perceive everything that is happening around them, they acquire only a subset of the information available in the environment
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Affectively Based Attitude
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An attitude based more on people's feelings and values than on their beliefs about the nature of an attitude object
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Aggression
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Intentional behavior aimed at doing harm or causing pain to another person
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Aggressive Stimulus
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An object that is associated with aggressive responses (e.g., a gun) and whose mere presence can increase the probability of aggression
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Altruism
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The desire to help another person even if it involves a cost to the helper
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Altruistic Personality
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The qualities that cause an individual to help others in a wide variety of situations
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Amygdala
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An area in the core of the brain that is associated with aggressive behaviors
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Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment Style
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An attachment style characterized by a concern that others will not reciprocate one's desire for intimacy, resulting in higher-than-average levels of anxiety
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Attachment Styles
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The expectations people develop about relationships with others, based on the relationship they had with their primary caregiver when they were infants
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Attitude Accessibility
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The strength of the association between an attitude object and a person's evaluation of that object, measured by the speed with which people can report how they feel about the object
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Attitude Inoculation
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Making people immune to attempts to change their attitudes by initially exposing them to small doses of the arguments against their position
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Attitudes
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Evaluations of people, objects, and ideas
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Avoidant Attachment Style
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An attachment style characterized by a suppression of attachment needs, because attempts to be intimate have been rebuffed; people with this style find it difficult to develop intimate relationships
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Behaviorally Based Attitude
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An attitude based on observations of how one behaves toward an attitude object
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Blaming the Victim
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The tendency to blame individuals (make dispositional attributions) for their victimization, typically motivated by a desire to see the world as a fair place
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Buffering Hypothesis
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The theory that we need social support only when we are under stress because it protects us against the detrimental effects of this stress
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Bystander Effect
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The finding that the greater the number of bystanders who witness an emergency, the less likely any one of them is to help
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Catharsis
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"blowing off steam" performing an aggressive act, watching others engage in aggressive behaviors, engaging in a fantasy of aggression relieves built-up aggression & reduces the likelihood of further aggressive behavior
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Central Route to Persuasion
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people elaborate on a persuasive communication, listening carefully to and thinking about the arguments, as occurs when people have both the ability and the motivation to listen carefully to a communication
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Classical Conditioning
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The phenomenon whereby a stimulus that elicits an emotional response is repeatedly paired with a neutral stimulus that does not, until the neutral stimulus takes on the emotional properties of the first stimulus
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Cognitive Interview
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A technique whereby a trained interviewer tries to improve eyewitnesses' memories by focusing their attention on the details and context of the event
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Cognitively Based Attitude
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An attitude based primarily on people's beliefs about the properties of an attitude object
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Commons Dilemma
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A social dilemma in which everyone takes from a common pool of goods that will replenish itself if used in moderation but will disappear if overused
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Communal Relationships
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Relationships in which people's primary concern is being responsive to the other person's needs
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Companionate Love
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The intimacy and affection we feel when we care deeply for a person but do not experience passion or arousal in the person's presence
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Comparison Level
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People's expectations about the level of rewards and punishments they are likely to receive in a particular relationship
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Comparison Level for Alternatives
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People's expectations about the level of rewards and punishments they would receive in an alternative relationship
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Conformity
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A change in one's behavior due to the real or imagined influence of other people
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Contagion
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The rapid spread of emotions or behaviors through a crowd
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Contingency Theory of Leadership
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The idea that leadership effectiveness depends both on how task-oriented or relationship-oriented the leader is and on the amount of control and influence the leader has over the group
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Coping Styles
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The ways in which people react to threatening events
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Deindividuation
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The loosening of normal constraints on behavior when people can't be identified (such as when they are in a crowd), leading to an increase in impulsive and deviant acts
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Descriptive Norms
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People's perceptions of how people actually behave in given situations, regardless of whether the behavior is approved or disapproved of by others
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Deterrence Theory
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The hypothesis that the threat of legal punishment causes people to refrain from criminal activity as long as the punishment is perceived as relatively severe, certain, and swift
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Diffusion of Responsibility
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The phenomenon whereby each bystander's sense of responsibility to help decreases as the number of witnesses increases
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Discrimination
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Unjustified negative or harmful action toward a member of a group simply because of his or her membership in that group
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Elaboration Likelihood Model
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explanation of the two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change: centrally, and peripherally.
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Empathy
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The ability to put oneself in the shoes of another person and to experience events and emotions (e.g., joy and sadness) the way that person experiences them
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Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis
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The idea that when we feel empathy for a person, we will attempt to help that person purely for altruistic reasons, regardless of what we have to gain
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Equity Theory
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The idea that people are happiest with relationships in which the rewards and costs experienced and the contributions made by both parties are roughly equal
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Evolutionary Approach to Love
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A theory derived from evolutionary biology that holds that men and women are attracted to different characteristics in each other because this maximizes their chances of reproductive success
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Evolutionary Psychology
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The attempt to explain social behavior in terms of genetic factors that evolved over time according to the principles of natural selection
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Exchange Relationships
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Relationships governed by the need for equity (i.e., for an equal ratio of rewards and costs)
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Explicit Attitudes
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Attitudes that we consciously endorse and can easily report
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False Memory Syndrome
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Remembering a past traumatic experience that is objectively false but nevertheless accepted as true
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Fear-Arousing Communications
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Persuasive messages that attempt to change people's attitudes by arousing their fears costs)
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Fight-or-Flight Response
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Responding to stress by either attacking the source of the stress or fleeing from it
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Frustration-Aggression Theory
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The idea that frustration—the perception that you are being prevented from attaining a goal—increases the probability of an aggressive response
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Global Attribution
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The belief that an event is caused by factors that apply in a large number of situations rather than factors that are specific and apply in only a limited number of situations
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Great Person Theory
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The idea that certain key personality traits make a person a good leader, regardless of the situation
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Group
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Two or more people who interact and are interdependent in the sense that their needs and goals cause them to influence each other
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Group Cohesiveness
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Qualities of a group that bind members together and promote liking between members
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Group Polarization
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The tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclinations of its members
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Groupthink
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A kind of thinking in which maintaining group cohesiveness and solidarity is more important than considering the facts in a realistic manner
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Heuristic-Systematic Model of Persuasion
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An explanation of the two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change: either systematically processing the merits of the arguments or using mental shortcuts (heuristics)
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Hostile Aggression
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Aggression stemming from feelings of anger and aimed at inflicting pain
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Idiosyncrasy Credits
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The tolerance a person earns, over time, by conforming to group norms; if enough idiosyncrasy credits are earned, the person can, on occasion, behave deviantly without retribution from the group
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Illusory Correlation
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The tendency to see relationships, or correlations, between events that are actually unrelated.
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Implicit Attitudes
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Attitudes that are involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious
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Informational Social Influence
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influence of other people that leads us to conform because we see them as a source of information to guide our behavior; we conform because we believe that others' interpretation of an ambiguous situation is more correct
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In-Group
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The group with which an individual identifies as a member
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Injunctive Norms
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People's perceptions of what behaviors are approved or disapproved of by others
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Institutionalized Racism
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Racist attitudes that are held by the vast majority of people living in a society where stereotypes and discrimination are the norm
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Institutionalized Sexism
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Sexist attitudes that are held by the vast majority of people living in a society where stereotypes and discrimination are the norm
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Instrumental Aggression
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Aggression as a means to some goal other than causing pain
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Integrative Solution
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A solution to a conflict whereby the parties make trade-offs on issues according to their different interests; each side concedes the most on issues that are unimportant to it but important to the other side
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Internal Attribution
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The belief that an event is caused by things about you (e.g., your own ability or effort),
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Internal-External Locus of Control
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The tendency to believe that things happen because we control them versus believing that good and bad outcomes are out of our controlas opposed to factors that are external to you (e.g., the difficulty of a test)
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Investment Model
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The theory that people's commitment to a relationship depends not only on their satisfaction with the relationship but also on how much they have invested in the relationship that would be lost by leaving it
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Jigsaw Classroom
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classroom setting designed to reduce prejudice, raise the self-esteem of children by placing them in small, desegregated groups, making each child dependent on the other children in the group to learn the course material
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Kin Selection
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The idea that behaviors that help a genetic relative are favored by natural selection
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Learned Helplessness
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The state of pessimism that results from attributing a negative event to stable, internal, and global factors
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Mass Psychogenic Illness
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The occurrence, in a group of people, of similar physical symptoms with no known physical cause
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Mere Exposure Effect
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The finding that the more exposure we have to a stimulus, the more apt we are to like it
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Minority Influence
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The case where a minority of group members influence the behavior or beliefs of the majority
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Modern racism
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Outwardly acting unprejudiced while inwardly maintaining prejudiced attitudes majority
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Mutual Interdependence
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The situation that exists when two or more groups need each other and must depend on each other to accomplish a goal that is important to each of them
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Need for Cognition
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A personality variable reflecting the extent to which people engage in and enjoy effortful cognitive activities
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Negative-State Relief Hypothesis
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The idea that people help in order to alleviate their own sadness and distress
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Negotiation
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A form of communication between opposing sides in a conflict in which offers and counteroffers are made and a solution occurs only when both parties agree
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Norm of Reciprocity
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The expectation that helping others will increase the likelihood that they will help us in the future
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Normative conformity
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The tendency to go along with the group in order to fulfill the group's expectations and gain acceptance
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Normative Social Influence
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The influence of other people that leads us to conform in order to be liked and accepted by them; this type of conformity results in public compliance with the group's beliefs and behaviors but not necessarily private acceptance
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Operant Conditioning
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The phenomenon whereby behaviors that people freely choose to perform increase or decrease in frequency, depending on whether they are followed by positive reinforcement or punishment
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Out-Group
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Any group with which an individual does not identify
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Out-Group Homogeneity
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The perception that individuals in the out-group are more similar to each other (homogeneous) than they really are, as well as more similar than the members of the in-group are
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Own-Race Bias
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The fact that people are better at recognizing faces of their own race than those of other races
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Passionate Love
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An intense longing we feel for a person, accompanied by physiological arousal; when our love is reciprocated, we feel great fulfillment and ecstasy, but when it is not, we feel sadness and despair
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Perceived Control
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The belief that we can influence our environment in ways that determine whether we experience positive or negative outcomes
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Peripheral Route to Persuasion
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The case whereby people do not elaborate on the arguments in a persuasive communication but are instead swayed by peripheral cues
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Persuasive Communication
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Communication (e.g., a speech or television ad) advocating a particular side of an issue
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Pluralistic Ignorance
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Bystanders' assuming that nothing is wrong in an emergency because no one else looks concerned
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Polygraph
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A machine that measures people's physiological responses polygraph operators attempt to tell if someone is lying by observing that person's physiological responses while answering questions
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Prejudice
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A hostile or negative attitude toward a distinguishable groups of people, based solely on their membership in that group
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Private Acceptance
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Conforming to other people's behavior out of a genuine belief that what they are doing or saying is right
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Procedural Justice
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People's judgments about the fairness of the procedures used to determine outcomes, such as whether they are innocent or guilty of a crime
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Process Loss
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Any aspect of group interaction that inhibits good problem solving
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Propinquity Effect
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The finding that the more we see and interact with people, the more likely they are to become our friends
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Prosocial Behavior
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Any act performed with the goal of benefiting another person
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Public Compliance
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Conforming to other people's behavior publicly without necessarily believing in what we are doing or saying
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Public Goods Dilemma
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A social dilemma in which individuals must contribute to a common pool in order to maintain the public good
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Reactance Theory
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The idea that when people feel their freedom to perform a certain behavior is threatened, an unpleasant state of reactance is aroused, which they can reduce by performing the threatened behavior
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Realistic Conflict Theory
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The idea that limited resources lead to conflict between groups and result in increased prejudice and discrimination
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Reconstructive Memory
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The process whereby memories of an event become distorted by information encountered after the event occurred
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Recovered Memories
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Recollections of a past event, such as sexual abuse, that had been forgotten or repressed
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Relationship-Oriented Leader
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A leader who is concerned primarily with workers' feelings and relationships
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Resilience
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Mild, transient reactions to stressful events, followed by a quick return to normal, healthy functioning
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Retrieval
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The process by which people recall information stored in their memories
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Scapegoating
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The tendency for individuals, when frustrated or unhappy, to displace aggression onto groups that are disliked, visible, and relatively powerless
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Scripts
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Ways of behaving socially that we learn implicitly from our culture
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Secure Attachment Style
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An attachment style characterized by trust, a lack of concern with being abandoned, and the view that one is worthy and well liked
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Self-Efficacy
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The belief in one's ability to carry out specific actions that produce desired outcomes
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Serotonin
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A chemical in the brain that may inhibit aggressive impulses
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Social Dilemma
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A conflict in which the most beneficial action for an individual will, if chosen by most people, have harmful effects on everyone
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Social Exchange Theory
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The idea that people's feelings about a relationship depend on their perceptions of the rewards and costs of the relationship, the kind of relationship they deserve, and their chances for having a better relationship
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Social Facilitation
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The tendency for people to do better on simple tasks and worse on complex tasks when they are in the presence of others and their individual performance can be evaluated
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Social Impact Theory
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The idea that conforming to social influence depends on the strength of the group's importance, its immediacy, and the number of people in the group
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Social Learning Theory
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The idea that we learn social behavior (e.g., aggression) by observing others and imitating them
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Social Loafing
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The tendency for people to do worse on simple tasks but better on complex tasks when they are in the presence of others and their individual performance cannot be evaluated
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Social Norms
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The implicit or explicit rules a group has for the acceptable behaviors, values, and beliefs of its members
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Social Roles
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Shared expectations in a group about how particular people are supposed to behave
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Social Support
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The perception that others are responsive and receptive to one's needs
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Source Monitoring
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The process whereby people try to identify the source of their memories
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Stable Attribution
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The belief that an event is caused by factors that will not change over time (e.g., your intelligence), as opposed to factors that will change over time (e.g., the amount of effort you put into a task)
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Stereotype
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A generalization about a group of people in which certain traits are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation among the members
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Stereotype Threat
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The apprehension experienced by members of a group that their behavior might confirm a cultural stereotype
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Storage
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The process by which people store in memory information they have acquired from the environment
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Stress
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The negative feelings and beliefs that arise whenever people feel unable to cope with demands from their environment
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Subliminal Messages
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Words or pictures that are not consciously perceived but may nevertheless influence people's judgments, attitudes, and behaviors
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Task-Oriented Leader
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A leader who is concerned more with getting the job done than with workers' feelings and relationships
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Tend-and-Befriend Response
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Responding to stress with nurturant activities designed to protect oneself and one's offspring (tending) and creating social networks that provide protection from threats (befriending)
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Testosterone
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A hormone associated with aggression
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Theory of Planned Behavior
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The idea that the best predictors of a person's planned, deliberate behaviors are the person's attitudes toward specific behaviors, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control
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Transactional Leaders
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Leaders who set clear, short-term goals and reward people who meet them
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Transactive Memory
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The combined memory of two people that is more efficient than the memory of either individual
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Transformational Leaders
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Leaders who inspire followers to focus on common, long-term goals
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Type A Personality
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The type of person who is typically competitive, impatient, hostile, and control-oriented, when confronting a challenge
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Type B Personality
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The type of person who is typically patient, relaxed, and noncompetitive when confronting a challenge
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Ultimate Attribution Error
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The tendency to make dispositional attributions about an entire group of people.
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Urban Overload Hypothesis
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The theory that people living in cities are constantly being bombarded with stimulation and that they keep to themselves to avoid being overwhelmed by it
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Yale Attitude Change Approach
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Study of the conditions under which people are most likely to change their attitudes in response to persuasive messages, focusing on the source of the communication, nature of the communication, and nature of the audience
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