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160 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Cognitively based attitudes
based mostly on people's beliefs about the properties of the attitude object
Affectively based attitudes
based more on people's emotions and values

-they can be created through classical conditioning or operant conditioning
Behaviorally based attitudes
based on people's actions toward the attitude object
Explicit attitudes
ones we consciously endorse and can easily report
Implicit attitudes
involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious
Counterattudinal advocacy for low external justification
people find internal justification for their behavior, bringing their attitude in line with their behavior
Effectiveness of persuasive communication depends on:
-aspects of the communicator/source of the message
-aspects of the message itself
-aspects of the audience
Elaboration likelihood model
specidies when people are persuaded more by the strength of the arguments in communication and when they are persuaded more by surface characteristics

-Central route to persuasion
or
-Peripheral route to persuasion
Central route to persuasion
When people have both the motivation and the ability to pay close attention to a message. Pay close attention to the strength of the arguments.
Peripheral route to persuasion
When people have low motivation or ability to pay close attention to a message, they are swayed by surface characteristics, such as the attractiveness of the speaker
Fear arousing communications
can cause lasting attitude change if a moderate amount of fear is aroused and people believe they will be reassured by the content of the message
Emotions can be used as heuristics to gauge one's attitude...
If people feel good in the presence of an object, they often infer that they like it, even if these good feelings were caused by something else
Attitude Inoculation
One way people can avoid being influences by persuasive messages. Expose people to small doses of arguments against their positions, which makes it easier for them to defend themselves against a persuasive message they hear later
Ways people can avoid being influenced by persuasive messages:
-Attitude Inoculation
-Raising awareness about product placement
-Teaching kids how to resist peer pressure
-Reactance Theory
Reactance Theory
People experience an unpleasant state called REACTANCE when their freedom of choice is threatened. Attempts to manage people's attitudes can backfire if they make people feel that their choice is limited
Attitude accessibility
the strength of the association between an object and an evaluation of it
When will attitudes predict behavior?

Predicting Spontaneous Behaviors:
-Attitudes predict spontaneous behaviors only when they are relatively accessible
When will attitudes predict behavior?

Predicting Deliberative Behaviors:
According to the THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIOR, deliberative behaviors are a function of:
-People's attitude toward the specific act in question
-Subjective norms (people's beliefs about how others view the behavior in question)
-How much people believe they can control the behavior
How advertising works:
Advertising works by:
-Targeting affectively based attitudes with emotions
-Targeting cognitively based attitudes with facts
-By making a product seem personally relevant
Acquisition
The process by which people notice and pay attention to information in the environment; because people cannot perceive everything that is happening around them, they acquire only a subset of the information available in the environment
Affectively Based Attitude
An attitude based more on people's feelings and values than on their beliefs about the nature of an attitude object
Aggression
Intentional behavior aimed at doing harm or causing pain to another person
Aggressive Stimulus
An object that is associated with aggressive responses (e.g., a gun) and whose mere presence can increase the probability of aggression
Altruism
The desire to help another person even if it involves a cost to the helper
Altruistic Personality
The qualities that cause an individual to help others in a wide variety of situations
Amygdala
An area in the core of the brain that is associated with aggressive behaviors
Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment Style
An attachment style characterized by a concern that others will not reciprocate one's desire for intimacy, resulting in higher-than-average levels of anxiety
Attachment Styles
The expectations people develop about relationships with others, based on the relationship they had with their primary caregiver when they were infants
Attitude Accessibility
The strength of the association between an attitude object and a person's evaluation of that object, measured by the speed with which people can report how they feel about the object
Attitude Inoculation
Making people immune to attempts to change their attitudes by initially exposing them to small doses of the arguments against their position
Attitudes
Evaluations of people, objects, and ideas
Avoidant Attachment Style
An attachment style characterized by a suppression of attachment needs, because attempts to be intimate have been rebuffed; people with this style find it difficult to develop intimate relationships
Behaviorally Based Attitude
An attitude based on observations of how one behaves toward an attitude object
Blaming the Victim
The tendency to blame individuals (make dispositional attributions) for their victimization, typically motivated by a desire to see the world as a fair place
Buffering Hypothesis
The theory that we need social support only when we are under stress because it protects us against the detrimental effects of this stress
Bystander Effect
The finding that the greater the number of bystanders who witness an emergency, the less likely any one of them is to help
Catharsis
"blowing off steam" performing an aggressive act, watching others engage in aggressive behaviors, engaging in a fantasy of aggression relieves built-up aggression & reduces the likelihood of further aggressive behavior
Central Route to Persuasion
people elaborate on a persuasive communication, listening carefully to and thinking about the arguments, as occurs when people have both the ability and the motivation to listen carefully to a communication
Classical Conditioning
The phenomenon whereby a stimulus that elicits an emotional response is repeatedly paired with a neutral stimulus that does not, until the neutral stimulus takes on the emotional properties of the first stimulus
Cognitive Interview
A technique whereby a trained interviewer tries to improve eyewitnesses' memories by focusing their attention on the details and context of the event
Cognitively Based Attitude
An attitude based primarily on people's beliefs about the properties of an attitude object
Commons Dilemma
A social dilemma in which everyone takes from a common pool of goods that will replenish itself if used in moderation but will disappear if overused
Communal Relationships
Relationships in which people's primary concern is being responsive to the other person's needs
Companionate Love
The intimacy and affection we feel when we care deeply for a person but do not experience passion or arousal in the person's presence
Comparison Level
People's expectations about the level of rewards and punishments they are likely to receive in a particular relationship
Comparison Level for Alternatives
People's expectations about the level of rewards and punishments they would receive in an alternative relationship
Conformity
A change in one's behavior due to the real or imagined influence of other people
Contagion
The rapid spread of emotions or behaviors through a crowd
Contingency Theory of Leadership
The idea that leadership effectiveness depends both on how task-oriented or relationship-oriented the leader is and on the amount of control and influence the leader has over the group
Coping Styles
The ways in which people react to threatening events
Deindividuation
The loosening of normal constraints on behavior when people can't be identified (such as when they are in a crowd), leading to an increase in impulsive and deviant acts
Descriptive Norms
People's perceptions of how people actually behave in given situations, regardless of whether the behavior is approved or disapproved of by others
Deterrence Theory
The hypothesis that the threat of legal punishment causes people to refrain from criminal activity as long as the punishment is perceived as relatively severe, certain, and swift
Diffusion of Responsibility
The phenomenon whereby each bystander's sense of responsibility to help decreases as the number of witnesses increases
Discrimination
Unjustified negative or harmful action toward a member of a group simply because of his or her membership in that group
Elaboration Likelihood Model
explanation of the two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change: centrally, and peripherally.
Empathy
The ability to put oneself in the shoes of another person and to experience events and emotions (e.g., joy and sadness) the way that person experiences them
Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis
The idea that when we feel empathy for a person, we will attempt to help that person purely for altruistic reasons, regardless of what we have to gain
Equity Theory
The idea that people are happiest with relationships in which the rewards and costs experienced and the contributions made by both parties are roughly equal
Evolutionary Approach to Love
A theory derived from evolutionary biology that holds that men and women are attracted to different characteristics in each other because this maximizes their chances of reproductive success
Evolutionary Psychology
The attempt to explain social behavior in terms of genetic factors that evolved over time according to the principles of natural selection
Exchange Relationships
Relationships governed by the need for equity (i.e., for an equal ratio of rewards and costs)
Explicit Attitudes
Attitudes that we consciously endorse and can easily report
False Memory Syndrome
Remembering a past traumatic experience that is objectively false but nevertheless accepted as true
Fear-Arousing Communications
Persuasive messages that attempt to change people's attitudes by arousing their fears costs)
Fight-or-Flight Response
Responding to stress by either attacking the source of the stress or fleeing from it
Frustration-Aggression Theory
The idea that frustration—the perception that you are being prevented from attaining a goal—increases the probability of an aggressive response
Global Attribution
The belief that an event is caused by factors that apply in a large number of situations rather than factors that are specific and apply in only a limited number of situations
Great Person Theory
The idea that certain key personality traits make a person a good leader, regardless of the situation
Group
Two or more people who interact and are interdependent in the sense that their needs and goals cause them to influence each other
Group Cohesiveness
Qualities of a group that bind members together and promote liking between members
Group Polarization
The tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclinations of its members
Groupthink
A kind of thinking in which maintaining group cohesiveness and solidarity is more important than considering the facts in a realistic manner
Heuristic-Systematic Model of Persuasion
An explanation of the two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change: either systematically processing the merits of the arguments or using mental shortcuts (heuristics)
Hostile Aggression
Aggression stemming from feelings of anger and aimed at inflicting pain
Idiosyncrasy Credits
The tolerance a person earns, over time, by conforming to group norms; if enough idiosyncrasy credits are earned, the person can, on occasion, behave deviantly without retribution from the group
Illusory Correlation
The tendency to see relationships, or correlations, between events that are actually unrelated.
Implicit Attitudes
Attitudes that are involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious
Informational Social Influence
influence of other people that leads us to conform because we see them as a source of information to guide our behavior; we conform because we believe that others' interpretation of an ambiguous situation is more correct
In-Group
The group with which an individual identifies as a member
Injunctive Norms
People's perceptions of what behaviors are approved or disapproved of by others
Institutionalized Racism
Racist attitudes that are held by the vast majority of people living in a society where stereotypes and discrimination are the norm
Institutionalized Sexism
Sexist attitudes that are held by the vast majority of people living in a society where stereotypes and discrimination are the norm
Instrumental Aggression
Aggression as a means to some goal other than causing pain
Integrative Solution
A solution to a conflict whereby the parties make trade-offs on issues according to their different interests; each side concedes the most on issues that are unimportant to it but important to the other side
Internal Attribution
The belief that an event is caused by things about you (e.g., your own ability or effort),
Internal-External Locus of Control
The tendency to believe that things happen because we control them versus believing that good and bad outcomes are out of our controlas opposed to factors that are external to you (e.g., the difficulty of a test)
Investment Model
The theory that people's commitment to a relationship depends not only on their satisfaction with the relationship but also on how much they have invested in the relationship that would be lost by leaving it
Jigsaw Classroom
classroom setting designed to reduce prejudice, raise the self-esteem of children by placing them in small, desegregated groups, making each child dependent on the other children in the group to learn the course material
Kin Selection
The idea that behaviors that help a genetic relative are favored by natural selection
Learned Helplessness
The state of pessimism that results from attributing a negative event to stable, internal, and global factors
Mass Psychogenic Illness
The occurrence, in a group of people, of similar physical symptoms with no known physical cause
Mere Exposure Effect
The finding that the more exposure we have to a stimulus, the more apt we are to like it
Minority Influence
The case where a minority of group members influence the behavior or beliefs of the majority
Modern racism
Outwardly acting unprejudiced while inwardly maintaining prejudiced attitudes majority
Mutual Interdependence
The situation that exists when two or more groups need each other and must depend on each other to accomplish a goal that is important to each of them
Need for Cognition
A personality variable reflecting the extent to which people engage in and enjoy effortful cognitive activities
Negative-State Relief Hypothesis
The idea that people help in order to alleviate their own sadness and distress
Negotiation
A form of communication between opposing sides in a conflict in which offers and counteroffers are made and a solution occurs only when both parties agree
Norm of Reciprocity
The expectation that helping others will increase the likelihood that they will help us in the future
Normative conformity
The tendency to go along with the group in order to fulfill the group's expectations and gain acceptance
Normative Social Influence
The influence of other people that leads us to conform in order to be liked and accepted by them; this type of conformity results in public compliance with the group's beliefs and behaviors but not necessarily private acceptance
Operant Conditioning
The phenomenon whereby behaviors that people freely choose to perform increase or decrease in frequency, depending on whether they are followed by positive reinforcement or punishment
Out-Group
Any group with which an individual does not identify
Out-Group Homogeneity
The perception that individuals in the out-group are more similar to each other (homogeneous) than they really are, as well as more similar than the members of the in-group are
Own-Race Bias
The fact that people are better at recognizing faces of their own race than those of other races
Passionate Love
An intense longing we feel for a person, accompanied by physiological arousal; when our love is reciprocated, we feel great fulfillment and ecstasy, but when it is not, we feel sadness and despair
Perceived Control
The belief that we can influence our environment in ways that determine whether we experience positive or negative outcomes
Peripheral Route to Persuasion
The case whereby people do not elaborate on the arguments in a persuasive communication but are instead swayed by peripheral cues
Persuasive Communication
Communication (e.g., a speech or television ad) advocating a particular side of an issue
Pluralistic Ignorance
Bystanders' assuming that nothing is wrong in an emergency because no one else looks concerned
Polygraph
A machine that measures people's physiological responses polygraph operators attempt to tell if someone is lying by observing that person's physiological responses while answering questions
Prejudice
A hostile or negative attitude toward a distinguishable groups of people, based solely on their membership in that group
Private Acceptance
Conforming to other people's behavior out of a genuine belief that what they are doing or saying is right
Procedural Justice
People's judgments about the fairness of the procedures used to determine outcomes, such as whether they are innocent or guilty of a crime
Process Loss
Any aspect of group interaction that inhibits good problem solving
Propinquity Effect
The finding that the more we see and interact with people, the more likely they are to become our friends
Prosocial Behavior
Any act performed with the goal of benefiting another person
Public Compliance
Conforming to other people's behavior publicly without necessarily believing in what we are doing or saying
Public Goods Dilemma
A social dilemma in which individuals must contribute to a common pool in order to maintain the public good
Reactance Theory
The idea that when people feel their freedom to perform a certain behavior is threatened, an unpleasant state of reactance is aroused, which they can reduce by performing the threatened behavior
Realistic Conflict Theory
The idea that limited resources lead to conflict between groups and result in increased prejudice and discrimination
Reconstructive Memory
The process whereby memories of an event become distorted by information encountered after the event occurred
Recovered Memories
Recollections of a past event, such as sexual abuse, that had been forgotten or repressed
Relationship-Oriented Leader
A leader who is concerned primarily with workers' feelings and relationships
Resilience
Mild, transient reactions to stressful events, followed by a quick return to normal, healthy functioning
Retrieval
The process by which people recall information stored in their memories
Scapegoating
The tendency for individuals, when frustrated or unhappy, to displace aggression onto groups that are disliked, visible, and relatively powerless
Scripts
Ways of behaving socially that we learn implicitly from our culture
Secure Attachment Style
An attachment style characterized by trust, a lack of concern with being abandoned, and the view that one is worthy and well liked
Self-Efficacy
The belief in one's ability to carry out specific actions that produce desired outcomes
Serotonin
A chemical in the brain that may inhibit aggressive impulses
Social Dilemma
A conflict in which the most beneficial action for an individual will, if chosen by most people, have harmful effects on everyone
Social Exchange Theory
The idea that people's feelings about a relationship depend on their perceptions of the rewards and costs of the relationship, the kind of relationship they deserve, and their chances for having a better relationship
Social Facilitation
The tendency for people to do better on simple tasks and worse on complex tasks when they are in the presence of others and their individual performance can be evaluated
Social Impact Theory
The idea that conforming to social influence depends on the strength of the group's importance, its immediacy, and the number of people in the group
Social Learning Theory
The idea that we learn social behavior (e.g., aggression) by observing others and imitating them
Social Loafing
The tendency for people to do worse on simple tasks but better on complex tasks when they are in the presence of others and their individual performance cannot be evaluated
Social Norms
The implicit or explicit rules a group has for the acceptable behaviors, values, and beliefs of its members
Social Roles
Shared expectations in a group about how particular people are supposed to behave
Social Support
The perception that others are responsive and receptive to one's needs
Source Monitoring
The process whereby people try to identify the source of their memories
Stable Attribution
The belief that an event is caused by factors that will not change over time (e.g., your intelligence), as opposed to factors that will change over time (e.g., the amount of effort you put into a task)
Stereotype
A generalization about a group of people in which certain traits are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation among the members
Stereotype Threat
The apprehension experienced by members of a group that their behavior might confirm a cultural stereotype
Storage
The process by which people store in memory information they have acquired from the environment
Stress
The negative feelings and beliefs that arise whenever people feel unable to cope with demands from their environment
Subliminal Messages
Words or pictures that are not consciously perceived but may nevertheless influence people's judgments, attitudes, and behaviors
Task-Oriented Leader
A leader who is concerned more with getting the job done than with workers' feelings and relationships
Tend-and-Befriend Response
Responding to stress with nurturant activities designed to protect oneself and one's offspring (tending) and creating social networks that provide protection from threats (befriending)
Testosterone
A hormone associated with aggression
Theory of Planned Behavior
The idea that the best predictors of a person's planned, deliberate behaviors are the person's attitudes toward specific behaviors, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control
Transactional Leaders
Leaders who set clear, short-term goals and reward people who meet them
Transactive Memory
The combined memory of two people that is more efficient than the memory of either individual
Transformational Leaders
Leaders who inspire followers to focus on common, long-term goals
Type A Personality
The type of person who is typically competitive, impatient, hostile, and control-oriented, when confronting a challenge
Type B Personality
The type of person who is typically patient, relaxed, and noncompetitive when confronting a challenge
Ultimate Attribution Error
The tendency to make dispositional attributions about an entire group of people.
Urban Overload Hypothesis
The theory that people living in cities are constantly being bombarded with stimulation and that they keep to themselves to avoid being overwhelmed by it
Yale Attitude Change Approach
Study of the conditions under which people are most likely to change their attitudes in response to persuasive messages, focusing on the source of the communication, nature of the communication, and nature of the audience