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174 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Hindsight Bias
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Tendency for people to think that they knew the correct answer after it's been given to them
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Correlational Method
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a statistical measure of a relationship between two or more variables, gives an indication of how one variable may predict another.
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Debriefing
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Procedures at the conclusion of a research session in which participants are given full information about the nature of the research and the hypothesis under investigation
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Deception
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a technique whereby researchers withhold information about the study from people participating in it
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Dependent Variable
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The variable that is measured in an experiment
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Evolutionary Psychology
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a branch of psychology that seeks to investigate the potential role of genetic factors in various aspects of human behaviour
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Relationships
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Our social ties with other people, ranging from casual acquaintance or passing friendships to intense, long term relationships
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Multicultural Perspective
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A focus on understanding the cultural and ethnic factors that influence social behaviour
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Systematic Observation
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A method of research in which behaviour is systematically observed and recorded
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Survey Method
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A method of research in which a large number of people answer questions about their attitudes or behaviour
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Hypothesis
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An as yet unverified prediction concerning some aspect of social behaviour or social thought
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Experimental Method
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A method of research in which one or more factors are systematically changed to determine whether such variations affect one or more other factors
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Independent Variable
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The variable that is systematically changed
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Mediating Variable
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a variable that is affected by an independent variable and then influences the dependent variable.
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Informed Consent
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A procedure in which research participants are provided with as much information about a research project as possible before deciding whether to participate
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Social Cognition
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The manner in which we interpret, analyze and use information about the social world
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Heuristics
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Simple rules for making complex decisions or drawing inferences in a rapid and seemingly effortless manner
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Affect
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Our current feelings and moods
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Information Overload
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instances in which our ability to process information is exceeded
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Conditions of Uncertainty
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where the "correct" answer is difficult to know or would take a great deal of effort to determine
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Prototype
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summary of the common attributes possessed by members of a category
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Representativeness Heuristic
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a strategy for making judgements based on the extent to which current stimuli or events resemble other stimuli or categories
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Availability Heuristic
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a strategy for making judgements on the basis of how easily specific kinds of information can be brought to mind
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Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic
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A heuristic that involves the tendency to use a number of value as a starting point to which we then make adjustments
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Status Quo Heuristic
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Objects and options more easily retrieved from memory (more common) may be judged as "good" or better than objects that are new or rarely encountered
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Schemas
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Mental frameworks centering on a specific theme that help us to organize social information
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Priming
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a situation that occurs when stimuli or events increase the availability in memory or consciousness of specific types of information held in memory
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unpriming
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refers to the fact that the effects of the schemas tent to persist until they are somehow expressed in thought or behaviour and only then do they decrease
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Perseverance Effect
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The tendency for beliefs and schemas to remain unchanged even in the face of contradictory information
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Automatic Processing
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after extensive experience with a task or type of information, we reach the stage where we can perform the task or process the information in a seemingly effortless, unconscious manner
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Optimistic Bias
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Our predisposition to expect things to turn out well overall
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Overconfidence Barrier
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The tendency to have more confidence in the accuracy of out own judgements than is reasonable
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Planning Fallacy
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tendency to make optimistic predictions concerning how long a given task will take for completion
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Counterfactual Thinking
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tendency to imagine other outcomes in a situation that the ones that actually occurred ("what might have been")
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Magical Thinking
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thinking involving assumptions that don't hold up to rational scrutiny (i.e. things that resemble one another share fundamental properties)
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Terror Management
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our efforts to come to terms with certainty of our own death and its unsettling implications
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Mood Congruence Effects
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the fact that we are more likely to store or remember positive information when in a positive mood, and negative information when in a negative mood
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Mood Dependent Memory
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what we remember while in a given mood may be determined by what we learned when previously in that mood
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Affective Forecasts
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Predictions about how we would feel about events not actually experienced
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False Consensus Effect
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the tendency to overestimate the degree to which others agree with our thoughts, feelings, beliefs, etc.
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False Uniqueness Effect
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the tendency for us to underestimate the degree to which others share our desirable qualities and characteristics.
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Social Perception
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the process through which we seek to know and understand other people
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nonverbal communication
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communication between individuals that does not involve the content of spoken language. It relies on facial expressions, eye contact, gestures and touch.
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Attribution
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the process through which we seek to identify the causes of others behaviour and so gain knowledge of their stable traits and dispositions
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Impression Formation
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the process through which we form impressions of others
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impression management
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efforts by individuals to produce positive first impressions on others
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staring
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a form of eye contact in which on person continues to gaze steadily at another regardless of what the recipient does
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body language
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cues provided by the position, posture, and movement of other's bodies or body parts
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Positive Affect Touch
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Touch that communicates appreciation, affection, sexual interest, etc.
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Playful Touch
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intended to communicate playfulness
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Control Touch
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used to draw attention/induce compliance
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Ritualistic Touch
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occur when we greet/say goodbye
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task-related touch
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associated with the accomplishment of a task
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negative affect touch
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removing a touch that is not wanted
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aggressive touch
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any aggressive touches
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Facial Feedback Hypothesis
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we only show what we feel in our facial expressions, but these expressions influence our emotional states
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Microexpressions
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fleeting facial expressions lasting only a few tenths of a second. Can be very revealing about other's true feelings or emotions since they are difficult to control.
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Linguistic Style
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Aspects of speech apart from the meaning of the words employed
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Interchannel Discrepancies
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inconsistencies between nonverbal cues from different channels resulting from deception. People who are lying often find it difficult to control more than one of these channels at once.
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Jones and Davis's Theory of Correspondent Indifference
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theory describing how we use others' behaviour as a basis for inferring their stable dispositions
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Noncommon Effects
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effects produced by a particular cause that could not be produced by any other apparent cause
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Kelley's Covariation Theory
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We are interested in the question of whether others behaviour stemmed from internal or external causes. Focus on information relating to consensus, consistency and distinctiveness to decide.
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Consensus
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the extent to which other people react to some stimulus or even in the same manner as the person we are considering
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Consistency
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the extent to which an individual responds to a given stimulus or situation in the same way on different occasions
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Distinctiveness
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the extent to which an individual responds in the same manner to different stimuli or events
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Attribution
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attempts to understand the causes of other people's behaviour
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Internal Attribution
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something about the person (ie. personality trait) caused him/her to act in a particular way
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External (Situational) Attribution
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something about the situation that the person was in caused him/her to act in a certain way
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Action Identification
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the level of interpretation we place on an action. Low-level interpretations focus on the action itself, while high-level interpretations focus on the ultimate goals.
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Correspondence Bias (Fundamental Attribution Error)
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the tendency to explain others actions as stemming from dispositions even in the presence of clear situational causes
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Actor-Observer Effect
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the tendency to attribute our own behaviour mainly to situational causes but the behaviour of others mainly to internal causes
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Self-Serving Bias
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the tendency to attribute positive outcomes to internal causes and negative outcomes to external causes
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Thin Slices
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small amounts of information about others we use to form first impressions
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Implicit Personality Theories
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belief that certain traits tend to occur together. People that possess some traits are likely to possess others
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Self-Enhancement
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Efforts to increase our own appeal to others
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Other-Enhancement
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efforts to make the target person feel good in various ways
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Impression Management
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Self presentation to increase the likelihood of making a good first impression
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Native Scientists
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try to rationally and logically process information about the social world
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Cognitive Misers
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lazy thinkers looking for mental shortcuts we can use while processing social information
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Motivated Tactician Model
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people are flexible social thinkers who can choose between different cognitive strategies based on their current goals, motivations and needs
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Explicit Attitudes
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consciously accessible attitudes that are controllable and easy to report
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Implicit Attitudes
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unconscious associations between objects and evaluative responses
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Attitude
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evaluation of something or someone. Positive, negative or neutral reaction to a person, place, object, event, idea, etc.
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ABC of Attitude
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A: Affective Component (emotional reaction)
B: Behavioural Component (how we actually respond) c) Cognitive Component (our beliefs about the subject) |
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Social Learning
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the process through which we acquire new information, forms of behaviour, or attitudes from other people
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Classical Conditioning
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a basic form of learning in which one stimulus, initially neutral, acquires the capacity to evoke reactions through repeated pairing with another stimulus.
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Illusion of the Truth Effect
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The mere repetition of information creates a sense of familiarity and more positive attitudes.
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Operant Conditioning
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Behaviour and attitudes being shaped by their consequences
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Instrumental Function of Attitudes
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our attitudes are instrumental in the sense that they help us to gain rewards and prevent punishments
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Knowledge Function of Attitudes
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Our attitudes help us to make sense of the social world.
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Self-Esteem Function of Attitudes
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holding a negative attitude towards members of a particular social group is one way in which some people boost their ego
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Self-Expression Function of Attitude
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Our attitudes are often the means by which we express ourselves to others
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Social Comparison
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the process through which we compare ourselves to others to determine whether out view of social reality is or is not correct
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Theory of Planned Behaviour
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Our attitudes do not influence our behaviour directly, but only our intentions to perform a behaviour
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Ways to Predict Intentions:
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1. Behavioural Attitude (out feelings about engaging in behaviour, the consequences it will yield)
2. Subjective Norms (our beliefs about how significant others will feel about us engaging in the behaviour) 3. Perceived Behavioural Control (the extent to which we believe that the behaviour in question will be easy/difficult for us to accomplish) |
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Attitude-To-Behaviour Process Model
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a model of how attitudes guide behaviour that emphasize the influence of attitudes and stored knowledge of what is appropriate in a given situation on an individual's definition of the present situation. Influences overt behaviour.
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Persuasion
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The process of deliberately trying to change someone's attitude
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Selective Avoidance
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tendency to avoid information that challenges existing attitudes - increases resistance to persuasion
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Cognitive Dissonance
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an internal state that results when individuals notice inconsistency between two or more attitudes or between their attitudes and behaviour
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Less-Leads-To-More
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offering people small rewards for engaging in counter-attitudinal behaviour often produces more dissonance and so more attitude change than large rewards
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Personal Identity
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personal characteristics which make you a unique individual
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Social Identity
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groups to which you belong
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self-concept
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all known aspects of the self; all of the information about the self that is stored in your memory
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Independent Self-Construal
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a conception of the self as autonomous and independent of others
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Interdependent Self-Construal
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a conception of the self as connected to others
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Self-Schemas
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the ingredients of out self-concept; cognitive structures about the self derived from past experiences
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Self-Reference Effect
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information related to our self-schema is processed and retrieved more readily and thoroughly than other information
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Possible Selves
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our visions of the self we dream of becoming, and are afraid of becoming
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Intragroup Comparison
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judgements resulting from comparisons of individual members of the same group
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Intergroup Comparison
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judgements that result from comparisons between our group and another group
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Autobiographical Memory
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memories of ourself in the past-over our lifetime
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Self-Control
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refraining from actions that we likfe, instead performing actions that we prefer not to do in order to achieve a long-term goal
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Ego-Depletion
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lover capacity to exert self-control after earlier efforts
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Self-Esteem
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degree to which we perceive ourselves positively or negatively
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Implicit Self-Esteem
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feelings about the self of which we are not consciously aware
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Social Comparison
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means by which we judge ourselves. Can be wither upward or downward
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Above-Average Effect
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we see ourselves more positively than we see other people
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Stereotype Threat
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can occur when people believe that they might be judged in the light of a negative stereotype about their group of that their performance may confirm this stereotype
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Sources of Self-Concept
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1. Socialization (how we are raised)
2. Introspection (looking inward) 3. Self-Awareness Theory (when we are in a heightened state of self-awareness, we will compare our thoughts or behaviour to an inner standard) |
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Interpersonal Attraction
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the evaluations we make of other people
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Need for Affiliation
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basic motive to seek and maintain a relationship
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Factors Determining Interpersonal Attraction
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1. Proximity (physical closeness)
2. Similarity (we tend to like others who are similar to ourselves) 3. Reciprocity of Liking (we are usually attracted to people who like us) 4. Physical Attractiveness |
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Halo Effect
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"what is beautiful is good". Physical attractiveness must therefore accompany other desirable traits
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Radiation Effect
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a person of average attractiveness is rated as more attractive when paired with someone highly attractive
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Contrast Effect
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in sequential comparisons, a person of average attractiveness would be seen as more attractive after an unattractive person, less attractive after a highly attractive person
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Matching Hypothesis
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most people tend to pair off with someone who is around their level of attractiveness
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Balance Theory
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Balance (liking + agreement) = positive affect
Imbalance (liking + disagreement) = negative state, desire to restore balance Nonbalance (disliking + either agreement or disagreement) = indifference |
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Attachment Style
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degree of security experienced in interpersonal relationships
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Secure Attachment Style
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high self esteem, high interpersonal trust. Most desired attachment style.
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Fearful-Avoidant Attachment Style
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low self esteem, low trust.
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Preoccupied Attachment Style
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low self esteem, high trust
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Dismissing Attachment Style
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high self esteem, low trust
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Compliance
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a form of social influence involving direct requests from one person to another
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Symbolic Social Influence
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social influence resulting from the mental representation of others or our relationship with them
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Obedience
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a form of social influence in which one person simply orders one or more others to perform some actions
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Social Norms
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rules indicating how individuals are expected to behave in specific situations
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Autokinetic Phenomenon
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the apparent movement of a single, stationary source of light in a dark room. Often used to study the emergence of social norms and social influence. In a dark room there are no clear cues to distance or location.
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Cohesiveness
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the extent to which we are attracted to a social group and want to belong to it
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Descriptive Norms
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norms simply indicating what most people do in a given situation
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Injunctive Norms
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norms specifying what ought to be done, what is approved or disapproved behaviour in a given situation
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Normative Focus Theory
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a theory suggesting that norms will influence behaviour only to the extent that they are focal for the people involved at the time the behaviour occurs
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Normative Social Influence
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social influence based on the desire to be liked or accepted by other people
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Informational Social Influence
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social influence based on the desire to be correct
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Nonconformity
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refusing to "go along" with the group
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Compliance Professionals
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people whose success depends on their ability to get others to say yes
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Foot-In-The-Door Technique
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a procedure for gaining compliance in which requesters begin with a small request and then, when this is granted, escalate to a larger one (the one they desired all along)
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Low-Ball Procedure
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a technique for gaining compliance in which an offer of deal is changed to make it less attractive to the target person after this person has accepted it
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Door-In-The-Face Technique
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a procedure for gaining compliance in which requesters begin with a large request and then, when this is refused, retreat to a smaller one (the one they wanted all along)
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That's Not All Technique
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a technique for gaining compliance in which requesters offer additional benefits to target people before they have decided whether to comply with or reject specific requests
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Playing Hard To Get
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a technique that can be used to increase compliance by suggesting that the person or object is scarce and hard to obtain
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Deadline Technique
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a technique for increasing compliance in which target people are told that they have only a limited time to take advantage of some offer or to obtain some item
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Prosocial Behaviour
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actions by individuals that help others without immediate benefit to the helper
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Empathy
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emotional reactions that are focused on/oriented toward other people and include feelings of compassion, sympathy and concern
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Empathy-Alturism Hypothesis
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the suggestion that some prosocial behaviours are motivated solely by the desire to help someone in need
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3 Components of Empathy
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1. Emotional Empathy (sharing feelings/emotions)
2. Empathetic Accuracy (perceiving others thoughts and feelings accurately) 3. Empathetic Concern (feelings of concern for another's wellbeing) |
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Negative State Relief Model
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proposal that prosocial behaviour is motivated by the bystander's desire to reduce his/her own uncomfortable negative emotions
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Empathetic Joy Hypothesis
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helpers respond to the needs of a victim because they want to accomplish something, doing so is rewarding in itself
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Defensive Helping
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help given to members of outgroups to reduce the threat they pose on the status or distinctiveness of someone's ingroup
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Diffusion of Responsibility
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greater number of witnesses there are to an emergency, the less likely the victims are to receive help. Bystanders assume that someone else will help.
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Pluralistic Ignorance
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because none of the bystanders respond to an emergency, no one knows for sure that is happening and each depends on the others to interpret the situation
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5 Steps to Helping in Emergencies
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1. Notice that something unusual is happening
2. Interpret the situation as an emergency 3. Accept responsibility for helping 4. Decide that you have the knowledge and skills necessary to help 5. Decide to actually help |
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Aggression
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behaviour directed toward the goal of harming another living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment
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Drive Theories of Aggression
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theories suggesting that aggression stems from external conditions that arouse the motive to harm or injure others
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Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
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anything that prevents us from reaching goals we are seeking leads to the arousal of a drive whose primary goal is that of harming some person or object. Theory states that frustration is the strongest cause of aggression.
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General Aggression Model (GAM)
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A modern theory of aggression suggesting that aggression is triggered by a wide range of input variables that influence arousal, affective stages and cognition
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Provocation
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actions by others that tend to trigger aggression in the recipient, often because they are seen as stemming from malicious intent
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Teasing
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provoking statements that call attention to the target's flaws/imperfections
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Excitation Transfer Theory
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suggests that arousal produced in one situation can persist and intensify emotional reactions occurring in later situations
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Hostile Expectations Bias
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strong expectation that others will behave aggressively, causing an individual to be more aggressive themselves
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TASS Model (Traits As Situational Sensitivities)
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suggests that traits work in a threshold manner, influencing behaviour only when evoked
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Hostile Aggression
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aggression in which the prime objective is inflicting some kind of harm on the victim (heat of the moment)
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Instrumental Aggression
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aggression in which the prime objective is not to harm the victim, but rather attainment of some other goal
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Qualities of Effective Punishment
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an effective punishment must be delivered promptly, be certain to occur, be strong and justified
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Catharsis Hypothesis
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providing angry people with an opportunity to express their aggressive impulses in relatively safe ways will reduce their tendencies to engage in more harmful forces of aggression (does not work, primes people to act more aggressively)
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