Psychology 100 - Test 2 Chapters 5-7

Front 1

Stream of consciousness

Back 1

WilliamJames described it as a continuous flow of changing sensations, images,thoughts, and feelings. Fringe includes all of the thoughts and feelings thatwe have about our thoughts also known as metacognition.

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Physiological state

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The condition orstate of the body or bodily functions. Arousal is a physiological statedetermined by the reticular activating system, a network of structuresincluding the brain stem, medulla, and thalamus. Arousalrefers to the ways that awareness is regulated. zz

Front 3

Consciousness

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An individual’sawareness of external events and internal sensations under a condition ofarousal. Awareness includes awareness of the self and thoughts about one’sexperiences. See beautiful tree, not only do you see the colors, you recognizethat you are seeing them.

Front 4

Control Process

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Themost alert states of human consciousness, individuals actively focus theirefforts toward a goal. Controlled processes require selective attention, areslower that automatic processes, and involve the prefrontal cortex. ExecutiveFunction refers to higher-order, complex cognitive processes, includingthinking, planning, and problem solving. Cognitive Control is the capacity tomaintain attention by reducing interfering thoughts and being cognitivelyflexible.

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Selective Attention

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The ability to concentrate on a specific aspect of experience while ignoring others. Used in Control Process.

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Altered states of consciousness

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Can be produced by drugs, trauma, fatigue, possibly hypnosis, and sensory deprivation. EX: Feeling the effects of having taken alcohol or LSD, undergoing hypnosis to quit smoking or lose weight.

Front 7

Freud’s Unconscious Mind

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Unconscious thought is a reservoir of unacceptable wishes, feelings, and thoughts that are beyond conscious awareness. Storehouse for vile thoughts. Many mental processes (thoughts, emotions, and perceptions) can occur outside of awareness. These unconscious processes can have a substantial impact on behavior.

Front 8

Circadian Rhythms

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Daily behavioral or physiological cycles. Daily: sleep/wake cycle, body temperature, blood pressure, and blood sugar levels. Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN): small brain structure that uses input from retina to sync. Its own rhythm with the daily light / dark cycle. SCN -> Hypothalamus & Pineal gland to regulate daily rhythms such as temperature, hunger, and release of melatonin. SCN -> Reticular Formation -> daily sleep/wakefulness rhythms. Adrenal glands release large doses of cortisol to help you wake up.

Front 9

Melatonin

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A hormone that increases at night in humans, might help in reducing jet lag.

Front 10

Sleep Deprivation

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Decreased brain activity in the thalamus and the prefrontal cortex. Tired brain must compensate by using different pathways or alternative neural networks while thinking. Reduce ability to make healthy choices and foods. Fatal Familial Insomnia (FFI) – genetic mutation, progressive inability to sleep, thalamus damaged, Death in 18 months. 63% of Americans get less than 8 hours of sleep. Can affect decision making. Most people need 60-90 mins of sleep. Old – go to bed late, wake up early. Adolescents – go to sleep late, wake up late.

Front 11

Alpha Waves

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Associated with relaxation or drowsiness. Occur while relaxed but still awake, brain waves slow down, increase in amplitude, and become more synchronous, or regular.

Front 12

Insomnia

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Inability to sleep. Can involve a problem in falling asleep, waking up during the night, or waking up too early. More common among women and older adults, as well as among individuals who are thin, stressed, or depressed. Short-Term – Sleeping Pills. Mild insomnia = practicing good sleeping habits. Behavioral changes can help increase sleep time. Occurs more in men. Due to lack of Iron. Narcolepsy – Sudden, overpowering urge to sleep. Immediately enter REM sleep rather than progressing through the first four sleep stages. Often very tired during the day. Triggered by extreme emotional reactions, such as surprise, laughter, excitement, or anger. Involves problems with the Hypothalamus and Amygdala. Genetic undertones, hereditary.

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Narcolepsy

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Sudden, overpowering urge to sleep. Immediately enter REM sleep rather than progressing through the first four sleep stages. Often very tired during the day. Triggered by extreme emotional reactions, such as surprise, laughter, excitement, or anger. Involves problems with the Hypothalamus and Amygdala. Genetic undertones, hereditary.

Front 14

Dream

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Freud – Key to unconscious mind, symbolize unconscious wishes and analysis can uncover our hidden desires. Manifest content – Dream’s surface content, contains symbols that disguise the true meanings. Latent content – Dream’s hidden content, unconscious and true meaning. Cognitive theory – subconscious cognitive process, dreams should be viewed as a kind of mental simulation that is very similar in content to waking thoughts. Activation-Synthesis – Dreams result from the brain’s attempts to find logic in random brain activity that occurs during sleeping.

Front 15

Tolerance

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The need to take increasing amounts of a drug to get the same effect.

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Physical Dependence

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The physiological need for a drug that causes unpleasant withdrawal symptoms such as physical pain and a craving for the drug when it is discontinued.

Front 17

Alcohol

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Biggest CNS depressant. Brain areas involved in inhibition and judgement slow down. Next to caffeine, Alcohol is the most widely used drug. 50-60% of people have genetic disposition to alcohol. Alcohol goes to the VTA (Ventral tegmental area) and the NAcc (Nucleus Accumbens). Only the limbic and prefrontal areas of the brain are directly activated by dopamine, which comes from the VTA. Increases concentration of neurotransmitter gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA). Frontal cortex holds a memory of the pleasure involved in prior alcohol use and contributes to continued drinking.

Front 18

Morphine

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Depressant. An opiate, consist of opium and its derivatives. Depress the CNS. Powerful painkillers. Affect synapses in the brain that use endorphins as their neurotransmitter. When drug leaves the brain, the affected synapses become under stimulated. Feeling of euphoria and pain free. Increased appetite for food and sex.

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Learning

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A systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience. Behaviorism – Theory of learning that focuses solely on observable behaviors, discounting the importance of mental activity such as thinking, wishing, and hoping. Relatively stable, observable changes in behavior.

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Associative Learning

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Occurs when there is a connection or an association between two events. Conditioning is the process of learning these associations. Classical conditioning, organisms learn the associations between two stimuli. Organisms learn to anticipate events.

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Pavolov’s Experiment

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BEFORE CONDITIONING: Unconditioned stimulus (US = Food) -> Unconditioned response (UR = Dog Salivates). Neutral Stimulus (Bell) -> No Response (No Salvation. CONDITIOINING: Neutral Stimulus + US = UR. AFTER CONDITIOINING: Conditioned Stimuli (CS = BELL) -> Conditioned Response (CR = Dog Salivates).

Front 22

Spontaneous Recovery

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The process in classical conditioning by which a conditioned response can recur after a time delay, without further conditioning.

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Operant conditioning

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Instrumental conditioning. Organisms learn the association between a behavior and a consequence, such as a reward. Associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of the behavior’s occurrence. B.F. Skinner. Contingency plays an important role in operant conditioning. Rat pushes lever (Behavior) that delivers food, the delivery of food (consequence) is contingent on that behavior.

Front 24

Eli Thorndike

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Cats in puzzle boxes. First time cat was in box, it bit lawed or pawed at the food lever. Eventually it hits the lever correctly. Each time the cat goes in the box it repeated the previous behavior, however the more times the cat tried, the quicker it pressed the bar for food. First person to systematically study operant conditioning and reinforcement. Created Law of Effect.

Front 25

Law of Effect

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Human beings repeat behavior that leads to satisfying outcome, won’t repeat if it is not a satisfying outcome.

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Positive Reinforcement

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You get a reward for the action.

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Negative Reinforcement

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Something bad is taken away. (Parents keep nagging, you clean your room, and you clean the room. Nagging is the thing removed to cause negative reinforcement)

Front 28

Avoidance Learning

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Occurs when an organism learns that by making a particular response, a negative stimulus can be altogether avoided. Very Powerful in the sense that the behavior is maintained even in the absence of an aversive stimulus. Bad Grade? Study very hard forever.

Front 29

Learned Helplessness

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Organism has learned it has no control over negative outcomes. Why some victims of domestic violence fail to escape their terrible situation and why some students respond to failure at school by giving up trying.

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Primary Reinforcer

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Innately satisfying, does not take any learning on the organism’s part to make it pleasurable. IE: Food, Water, Sexual Satisfaction. Necessary for health and well-being.

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Punishment

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A consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur.Positive - When something bad is given as a reward to prevent a behavior from occurring again. Slap / Hit / Belt.Negative - When something good is taken away. Take away Cell Phone / Internet.

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Observational Learning

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Imitation or modeling, learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates behavior. Albert Bandura, doll study. Children who saw a doll being cursed at and beaten did the same thing. Four main processes: Attention, Retention, Motor Reproduction, Reinforcement (ARMoR ) . Important factor in the functioning of role models.

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Motor Reproduction

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Process of imitating the model’s actions.

Front 34

Encoding

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The process by which information gets into memory storage. Memory is the retention of information or experience over time. (Saving files)

Front 35

Level of Processing

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Continuum from shallow to intermediate to deep. Shallow processing includes noting the physical features of a stimulus ( The lines , angles, and contour that make up the physical appearance of an object, such as a car). Intermediate Level, Stimulus is recognized and labeled (The object is recognized as a car). Deep Level: Semantic, meaningful. (Associations connected with car are brought to mind, favorite types, joy rides)

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Elaboration

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Formation of a number of different connections around a stimulus at any given level of memory encoding. Going into detail. Creating a huge spider web of links between some new information. When we elaborate, we memorize without trying to memorize.

Front 37

Sensory Memory

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Holds information from world in its original sensory form only for an instant, not much longer than the brief time it is exposed to the visual, auditory, and other sense. Rich & Detailed, but we lose it quickly. Process many more stimuli at the sensory level than you consciously notice. Split into Echoic Memory and Iconic Memory. Echoic – Auditory, retained for several seconds. Iconic – Image, retained for ¼ of a second.

Front 38

Short-term Memory

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Limited capacity memory system in which information is usually retained for only as long as 30 seconds (up to 2 minutes with rehearsal). Continuous working memory. George Miller, 7 +- 2, memory span, the number of digits an individual can report back in order after a single presentation of them. Two ways to improve short term memory are chunking and rehearsal. Chunking = grouping, rehearsal = conscious repetition of information.

Front 39

Working Memory

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A combination of components that include short-term memory and attention that allows individuals to hold information temporarily as they perform cognitive tasks, a kind of mental workbench on which the brain manipulates and assembles information to guide understanding, decision making, and problem solving. Capacity of working memory is that of RAM. Mental place where thinking occurs. Three parts to working memory. 1. Phonological loop – briefly stores speech-based information. 2. Visuo-spatial sketchpad – stores visual and spatial information. 3. Central executive – integrates information from 1 + 2 and long-term memory. Working Memory = RAM, Central Executive = You controlling the files.

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Semantic Memory

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Type of explicit memory pertaining to a person’s knowledge about the world. Explicit memory is conscious recollection of information, such as specific facts and events, in humans, information that can be verbally communicated. You can know Lima is the Capital of Peru without knowing where you learned it.

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Procedural Memory

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Implicit memory process that involves memory for skills. Implicit memory is memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience without a conscious recollection of that experience. Examples: not conscious of where the keys are for various letter for typing but your unconscious typing skills allows you to hit the right keys. Driving a car. Implicit memory involves classical conditioning.