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93 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
gender
The characteristics of people as males and females.
gender identity
The sense of being male or female, which most children acquire by the time they are 3 years old.
gender role
A set of expectations that prescribes how females or males should think, act, and feel.
gender typing
Acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.
estrogens
Hormones, the most important of which is estradiol, that influences the development of female sex characteristics and help regulate the menstrual cycle.
androgens
Hormones, the most important of which is testosterone, that promote the development of male genitals and secondary sex characteristics.
social role
A theory stating that gender differences result from the contrasting roles of women and men- social hierarchy and division of labor strongly influence gender differences in power and assertiveness, and nature.
psychoanalytic theory of gender
A theory that stems from Freud's view that preschool children develop erotic feelings toward the opposite-sex parent. Eventually these feelings cause anxiety, so that at 5 or 6 years of age, children renounce these feelings and identify with the same-sex parent, unconsciously adopting the same-sex parent's characteristics.
social cognitive theory of gender
This theory emphasizes that children's gender development occurs through observation and imitation of gender behavior, and through rewards and punishments they experience for gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate behavior.
gender schema theory
According to this theory, gender typing emerges as children gradually develop schemas of what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture.
gender stereotypes
Broad categories that reflect impressions and widely held beliefs about what behavior is appropriate for females and males.
rapport talk
The language of conversation and a way of establishing connections and negotiating relationships; more characteristic of females than of males.
report talk
Talk that conveys information; more characteristic of males than females.
androgyny
The presence of masculine and feminine characteristics in the same person.
language
A form of communication, whether spoken, written, or signed that is based on a system of symbols.
infinite generativity
The ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences using a finite set of words and rules.
phonology
The sound system of a language, which includes the sounds used and rules about how they may be combined.
morphology
The rule system that governs how words are formed in a language.
syntax
The ways words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences.
semantics
The meaning of words and sentences.
pragmatics
The appropriate use of language in different contexts.
telegraphic speech
The use of short, precise words without grammatical markers such as articles, auxiliary verbs, and other connectives.
fast mapping
A process that helps to explain how young children learn the connection between a word and its reference so quickly.
metalinguistic awareness
Knowledge about language.
phonics approach
An approach that emphasizes that reading instruction should focus on phonics and its basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds.
whole-language approach
An approach that stresses that reading instruction should parallel children's language learning. Reading materials should be whole and meaningful.
metaphor
An implied comparison between two unlike things.
satire
The use of irony, derision, or wit to expose folly or wickedness.
dialect
A variety of language that is distinguished by its vocabulary, grammar, or pronunciation.
Broca's area
An area of the brain's left frontal lobe that is involve in speech production and grammatical processing.
Wernicke's area
An area of the brain's left hemisphere that is involved in language and comprehension.
aphasia
A disorder resulting from brain damage to Broca;s area or Wernicke's area that involves the loss or impairment of the ability to use or comprehend words.
language acquisition device (LAD)
Chomsky's term that describes a biological endowment that enables the child to detect the features and rules of language, including phonology, syntax, and semantics.
child-directed speech
Language spoken in a higher pitch than normal, with simple words and sentences.
recasting
Rephrasing a statement that a child has said, perhaps turning it into a question, or restating a child's immature utterance in the form of a fully grammatical utterance.
expanding
Restating, in a linguistically sophisticated form, what a child has said.
labelling
Identifying the names of objects.
information-processing approach
An approach that focuses on the ways children process information about their world- how they manipulate information, monitor it, and create strategies to deal with it.
encoding
The mechanism by which information gets into memory.
automaticity
The ability to process information with little or no effort.
strategy construction
Creation of new procedures for processing information.
metacognition
Cognition about cognition, or "knowing about knowing."
attention
Concentrating and focusing mental resources.
selective attention
Focusing on a specific aspect of experience that is relevant while ignoring others that are irrelevant.
divided attention
Concentrating on more than one activity at the same time.
sustained attention
The ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time. Sustained attention is also called: focused attention AND vigilance.
executive attention
Involves action planning, allocating attention to goal, error detection and compensation, monitoring progress on tasks, and dealing with novel or difficult circumstances.
joint attention
Individuals focusing on the same
memory
Retention of information over time.
short-term memory
Limited capacity memory system in which information is usually retained for up to 30 seconds, assuming there is no rehearsal of information. Using rehearsal, individuals can keep the information in the short term memory longer.
long-term memory
A relatively permanent and unlimited type of memory.
working memory
A mental "workbench" where individuals manipulate and assemble information when making decisions, solving problems, and comprehending written and spoken language.
schema theory
States that when people reconstruct information, they fit into information that already exists in their minds.
schemas
Mental frameworks that organize concepts and information.
fuzzy trace theory
States that memory is best understood by considering two types of memory representations: (1) verbatim memory trace; and (2) fuzzy trace, or gist. According to this theory, older children's better memory is attributed to the fuzzy traces created extracting the gist of information.
implicit memory
Memory without conscious recollection; memory of skills and routine procedures that are performed automatically.
explicit memory
Conscious memory of facts and experience.
thinking
Manipulating and transforming information in memory, usually to form concepts, reason, think critically, and solve problems.
critical thinking
Thinking reflectively and productively, and evaluating the evidence.
mindfulness
Being alert, mentally present, and cognitively flexible while going through life's everyday activities and tasks.
dual-process model
States that decision-making is influences by two systems, one analytical and one experimental, that compare with each other. In this model, it is the experimental system (monitoring and managing actual experiences) that benefits adolescent decision making.
metamemory
Knowledge about memory.
theory of mind
Awareness of one's own mental process and the mental processes and the mental processes of others.
schemes
In Piaget's theory, actions or mental representations that organize knowledge.
assimilation
Piagetian concept of the incorporation of new information into existing knowledge.
accomedation
Piagetian concept of adjusting schemes to fit new information and experiences.
organization
Piaget's concept of grouping isolated behaviors into higher-order, more smoothly functioning cognitive system; the grouping or arranging of items into categories.
equilibration
A mechanism that Piaget proposed to explain how children shift from one stage of thought to the next. The shift occurs as children experience cognitive conflict, or disequilibrium, in trying to understand the world. Eventually, they resolve the conflict and reach a balance, or equilibrium, of thought.
sensorimotor stage
The first of Piaget's stages, lasts from birth to about age 2 years of age; infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with motoric actions.
object permanence
The Piagetian term for one of an infant's most important accomplishments: understanding the objects and events continue to exist when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched.
A-not-B error
Also called the A-not-B error, this occurs when infants make the mistake of selecting the familiar hiding place (A) rather than the new hiding place (B) as they progress into substage 4 in Piaget's sensorimotor stage.
core knowledge approach
States that infants are born with domain -specific innate knowledge systems, such as those involving space, number sense, object permanence, and language.
operations
Internalized actions that allow children to do mentally what before they had done only physically. Operations also are reversible mental actions.
preoperational stage
The second Piagetian developmental stage, which lasts from about 2 to 7 years of age, when children begin to represent the world with words, images, and drawings.
symbolic function substage
The first substage of preoperational thought, occurring roughly between the ages of 2 to 4. In this substage, the young child gains the ability to represent mentally an object that is not present.
egocentrism
An important feature of preoporational thought: the ability to distinguish between one's own and someone else's perspective.
animism
A facet of preoperational thought: the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action.
intuitive thought substage
The second substage of preoperational thought, occurring between approximately 4 and 7 years of age, when children begin to use primitive reasoning.
conservation
The idea that altering an object's or substances appearance does not change its basic properties.
concrete operational stage
Piaget's third stage, which lasts from approximately 7 to 11 years of age, when children can perform concrete operations, and logical reasoning replaces intuitive reasoning as long as the reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples.
horizontal decalage
Piaget's concept that similar abilities do not appear at the same time within a stage of development.
seriation
The concrete operation that involves ordering stimuli along a quantitative dimension (such as length).
transitivity
Principle that says if a relation holds between a first object and a second object, and holds between the second object and a third object, then it holds between the first and the third object. Piaget argued that an understanding of transitivity is characteristic of concrete operational thought.
formal operational stage
Piaget's fourth and final stage, which occurs between the ages of 11 and 15, when individuals move beyond concrete experiences and think in more abstract and logical ways.
hypothetical-deductive reasoning
Piaget's formal operational concept that adolescents have the cognitive ability to develop hypothesis about ways to solve problems and can systematically deduce which is the best path to follow in solving the problem.
adolescent egocentrism
The heightened self-consciousness of adolescents, which is reflected in adolescents' belief that others are as interested in themselves as they are in themselves, and in adolescents' sense of personal uniqueness and invulnerability.
imaginary audience
The aspect of adolescents egocentrism that involves attention-getting behavior motivated by a desire to be noticed, visible, and "onstage."
personal fable
The part of adolescent egocentrism that involves an adolescent's sense of uniqueness and invincibility.
neo-Piagetians
Developmentalists who have elaborated on Piaget's theory, believing that children's cognitive development is more specific in many respects than Piaget thought and giving more emphasis to how children use memory, attention, and strategies to process information.
zone of proximal development (ZPD)
Vygotsky's term for tasks that are too difficult for children to master alone but can be mastered with assistance from adults or more-skilled children.
scaffolding
In cognitive development, Vygotsky used this term to describe the practice of changing the level of support provided over the course of a teaching session, with the more-skilled person adjusting guidance to fit the child's current performance level.
social constructivist approach
An emphasis on the social contexts of learning and the construction of knowledge through social interaction. Vygotsky's theory reflects this approach.
centration
Focusing attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others.