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93 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
gender
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The characteristics of people as males and females.
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gender identity
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The sense of being male or female, which most children acquire by the time they are 3 years old.
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gender role
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A set of expectations that prescribes how females or males should think, act, and feel.
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gender typing
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Acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.
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estrogens
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Hormones, the most important of which is estradiol, that influences the development of female sex characteristics and help regulate the menstrual cycle.
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androgens
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Hormones, the most important of which is testosterone, that promote the development of male genitals and secondary sex characteristics.
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social role
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A theory stating that gender differences result from the contrasting roles of women and men- social hierarchy and division of labor strongly influence gender differences in power and assertiveness, and nature.
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psychoanalytic theory of gender
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A theory that stems from Freud's view that preschool children develop erotic feelings toward the opposite-sex parent. Eventually these feelings cause anxiety, so that at 5 or 6 years of age, children renounce these feelings and identify with the same-sex parent, unconsciously adopting the same-sex parent's characteristics.
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social cognitive theory of gender
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This theory emphasizes that children's gender development occurs through observation and imitation of gender behavior, and through rewards and punishments they experience for gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate behavior.
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gender schema theory
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According to this theory, gender typing emerges as children gradually develop schemas of what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture.
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gender stereotypes
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Broad categories that reflect impressions and widely held beliefs about what behavior is appropriate for females and males.
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rapport talk
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The language of conversation and a way of establishing connections and negotiating relationships; more characteristic of females than of males.
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report talk
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Talk that conveys information; more characteristic of males than females.
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androgyny
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The presence of masculine and feminine characteristics in the same person.
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language
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A form of communication, whether spoken, written, or signed that is based on a system of symbols.
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infinite generativity
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The ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences using a finite set of words and rules.
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phonology
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The sound system of a language, which includes the sounds used and rules about how they may be combined.
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morphology
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The rule system that governs how words are formed in a language.
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syntax
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The ways words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences.
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semantics
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The meaning of words and sentences.
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pragmatics
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The appropriate use of language in different contexts.
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telegraphic speech
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The use of short, precise words without grammatical markers such as articles, auxiliary verbs, and other connectives.
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fast mapping
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A process that helps to explain how young children learn the connection between a word and its reference so quickly.
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metalinguistic awareness
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Knowledge about language.
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phonics approach
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An approach that emphasizes that reading instruction should focus on phonics and its basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds.
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whole-language approach
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An approach that stresses that reading instruction should parallel children's language learning. Reading materials should be whole and meaningful.
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metaphor
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An implied comparison between two unlike things.
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satire
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The use of irony, derision, or wit to expose folly or wickedness.
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dialect
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A variety of language that is distinguished by its vocabulary, grammar, or pronunciation.
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Broca's area
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An area of the brain's left frontal lobe that is involve in speech production and grammatical processing.
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Wernicke's area
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An area of the brain's left hemisphere that is involved in language and comprehension.
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aphasia
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A disorder resulting from brain damage to Broca;s area or Wernicke's area that involves the loss or impairment of the ability to use or comprehend words.
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language acquisition device (LAD)
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Chomsky's term that describes a biological endowment that enables the child to detect the features and rules of language, including phonology, syntax, and semantics.
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child-directed speech
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Language spoken in a higher pitch than normal, with simple words and sentences.
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recasting
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Rephrasing a statement that a child has said, perhaps turning it into a question, or restating a child's immature utterance in the form of a fully grammatical utterance.
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expanding
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Restating, in a linguistically sophisticated form, what a child has said.
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labelling
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Identifying the names of objects.
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information-processing approach
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An approach that focuses on the ways children process information about their world- how they manipulate information, monitor it, and create strategies to deal with it.
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encoding
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The mechanism by which information gets into memory.
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automaticity
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The ability to process information with little or no effort.
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strategy construction
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Creation of new procedures for processing information.
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metacognition
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Cognition about cognition, or "knowing about knowing."
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attention
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Concentrating and focusing mental resources.
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selective attention
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Focusing on a specific aspect of experience that is relevant while ignoring others that are irrelevant.
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divided attention
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Concentrating on more than one activity at the same time.
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sustained attention
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The ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time. Sustained attention is also called: focused attention AND vigilance.
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executive attention
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Involves action planning, allocating attention to goal, error detection and compensation, monitoring progress on tasks, and dealing with novel or difficult circumstances.
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joint attention
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Individuals focusing on the same
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memory
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Retention of information over time.
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short-term memory
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Limited capacity memory system in which information is usually retained for up to 30 seconds, assuming there is no rehearsal of information. Using rehearsal, individuals can keep the information in the short term memory longer.
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long-term memory
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A relatively permanent and unlimited type of memory.
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working memory
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A mental "workbench" where individuals manipulate and assemble information when making decisions, solving problems, and comprehending written and spoken language.
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schema theory
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States that when people reconstruct information, they fit into information that already exists in their minds.
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schemas
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Mental frameworks that organize concepts and information.
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fuzzy trace theory
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States that memory is best understood by considering two types of memory representations: (1) verbatim memory trace; and (2) fuzzy trace, or gist. According to this theory, older children's better memory is attributed to the fuzzy traces created extracting the gist of information.
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implicit memory
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Memory without conscious recollection; memory of skills and routine procedures that are performed automatically.
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explicit memory
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Conscious memory of facts and experience.
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thinking
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Manipulating and transforming information in memory, usually to form concepts, reason, think critically, and solve problems.
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critical thinking
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Thinking reflectively and productively, and evaluating the evidence.
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mindfulness
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Being alert, mentally present, and cognitively flexible while going through life's everyday activities and tasks.
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dual-process model
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States that decision-making is influences by two systems, one analytical and one experimental, that compare with each other. In this model, it is the experimental system (monitoring and managing actual experiences) that benefits adolescent decision making.
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metamemory
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Knowledge about memory.
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theory of mind
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Awareness of one's own mental process and the mental processes and the mental processes of others.
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schemes
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In Piaget's theory, actions or mental representations that organize knowledge.
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assimilation
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Piagetian concept of the incorporation of new information into existing knowledge.
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accomedation
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Piagetian concept of adjusting schemes to fit new information and experiences.
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organization
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Piaget's concept of grouping isolated behaviors into higher-order, more smoothly functioning cognitive system; the grouping or arranging of items into categories.
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equilibration
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A mechanism that Piaget proposed to explain how children shift from one stage of thought to the next. The shift occurs as children experience cognitive conflict, or disequilibrium, in trying to understand the world. Eventually, they resolve the conflict and reach a balance, or equilibrium, of thought.
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sensorimotor stage
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The first of Piaget's stages, lasts from birth to about age 2 years of age; infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with motoric actions.
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object permanence
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The Piagetian term for one of an infant's most important accomplishments: understanding the objects and events continue to exist when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched.
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A-not-B error
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Also called the A-not-B error, this occurs when infants make the mistake of selecting the familiar hiding place (A) rather than the new hiding place (B) as they progress into substage 4 in Piaget's sensorimotor stage.
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core knowledge approach
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States that infants are born with domain -specific innate knowledge systems, such as those involving space, number sense, object permanence, and language.
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operations
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Internalized actions that allow children to do mentally what before they had done only physically. Operations also are reversible mental actions.
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preoperational stage
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The second Piagetian developmental stage, which lasts from about 2 to 7 years of age, when children begin to represent the world with words, images, and drawings.
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symbolic function substage
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The first substage of preoperational thought, occurring roughly between the ages of 2 to 4. In this substage, the young child gains the ability to represent mentally an object that is not present.
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egocentrism
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An important feature of preoporational thought: the ability to distinguish between one's own and someone else's perspective.
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animism
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A facet of preoperational thought: the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action.
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intuitive thought substage
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The second substage of preoperational thought, occurring between approximately 4 and 7 years of age, when children begin to use primitive reasoning.
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conservation
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The idea that altering an object's or substances appearance does not change its basic properties.
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concrete operational stage
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Piaget's third stage, which lasts from approximately 7 to 11 years of age, when children can perform concrete operations, and logical reasoning replaces intuitive reasoning as long as the reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples.
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horizontal decalage
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Piaget's concept that similar abilities do not appear at the same time within a stage of development.
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seriation
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The concrete operation that involves ordering stimuli along a quantitative dimension (such as length).
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transitivity
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Principle that says if a relation holds between a first object and a second object, and holds between the second object and a third object, then it holds between the first and the third object. Piaget argued that an understanding of transitivity is characteristic of concrete operational thought.
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formal operational stage
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Piaget's fourth and final stage, which occurs between the ages of 11 and 15, when individuals move beyond concrete experiences and think in more abstract and logical ways.
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hypothetical-deductive reasoning
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Piaget's formal operational concept that adolescents have the cognitive ability to develop hypothesis about ways to solve problems and can systematically deduce which is the best path to follow in solving the problem.
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adolescent egocentrism
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The heightened self-consciousness of adolescents, which is reflected in adolescents' belief that others are as interested in themselves as they are in themselves, and in adolescents' sense of personal uniqueness and invulnerability.
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imaginary audience
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The aspect of adolescents egocentrism that involves attention-getting behavior motivated by a desire to be noticed, visible, and "onstage."
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personal fable
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The part of adolescent egocentrism that involves an adolescent's sense of uniqueness and invincibility.
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neo-Piagetians
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Developmentalists who have elaborated on Piaget's theory, believing that children's cognitive development is more specific in many respects than Piaget thought and giving more emphasis to how children use memory, attention, and strategies to process information.
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zone of proximal development (ZPD)
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Vygotsky's term for tasks that are too difficult for children to master alone but can be mastered with assistance from adults or more-skilled children.
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scaffolding
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In cognitive development, Vygotsky used this term to describe the practice of changing the level of support provided over the course of a teaching session, with the more-skilled person adjusting guidance to fit the child's current performance level.
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social constructivist approach
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An emphasis on the social contexts of learning and the construction of knowledge through social interaction. Vygotsky's theory reflects this approach.
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centration
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Focusing attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others.
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