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95 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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learning |
a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience |
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behaviorism |
a theory of learning that focuses solely on observable behaviors |
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associative learning |
the learning that occurs when we make a connection, or an association, between two events |
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observational learning |
the learning that takes place when an individual observes and then imitates another’s behavior |
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classical conditioning |
a learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response |
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Ivan Pavlov |
a pioneer in the study of classical conditioning |
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unconditioned stimulus (US) |
a stimulus that produces a response without any prior learning |
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unconditioned response (UR) |
an unlearned reaction that is automatically elicited by the US |
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conditioned stimulus (CS) |
a previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus |
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conditioned response (CR) |
the learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after CS-US pairing |
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acquisition |
the initial learning of the connection between the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus when these two stimuli are paired |
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contiguity |
the requirement that the CS and US are presented very close together in time—even a mere fraction of a second |
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contingency |
the requirement that the CS serves as a reliable indicator that the US is on its way |
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generalization (in classical conditioning) |
the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original CS to elicit a response that is similar to the CR |
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discrimination (in classical conditioning) |
the process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not others |
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extinction (in classical conditioning) |
the weakening of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is absent |
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spontaneous recovery |
the process in classical conditioning by which a conditioned response can recur after a time delay, without further conditioning |
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counterconditioning |
a classical conditioning procedure for changing the relationship between a conditioned stimulus and its conditioned response |
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aversive conditioning |
a form of treatment that involves repeated pairings of a stimulus with a very unpleasant stimulus |
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placebo effect |
an observable change (such as a drop in pain) that cannot be explained by the effects of an actual treatment |
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taste aversion |
a special kind of classical conditioning involving the learned association between a particular taste and nausea |
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habituation |
the decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations |
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operant conditioning |
(or instrumental conditioning), a form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior’s occurrence |
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B. F. Skinner |
a pioneer in the study of operant conditioning |
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Thorndike’s Law of Effect |
behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are strengthened, and behaviors followed by frustrating outcomes are weakened |
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reinforcement |
the process by which a stimulus or event (a reinforcer) following aparticular behavior increases the probability that the behavior will happen again |
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positive reinforcement |
the process in which the frequency of a behavior increases because it is followed by the presentation of something that is good |
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negative reinforcement |
the process in which the frequency of a behavior increases because it is followed by the removal of something unpleasant |
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avoidance learning |
a special kind of response to negative reinforcement that occurs when the organism learns that by making aparticular response, a negative stimulus can be altogether avoided |
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primary reinforcer |
an innately satisfying reinforcer; that is, it does not require any learning on the organism’s part to make it pleasurable; examples are food, water, and sexual satisfaction |
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secondary reinforcer |
a learned or conditioned reinforcer; examples are money and points |
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generalization (in operant conditioning) |
performance of a reinforced behavior in a different situation |
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discrimination (in operant conditioning) |
responding appropriately to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced |
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extinction (in operant conditioning) |
when a behavior is no longer reinforced and decreases in frequency |
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schedules of reinforcement |
specific patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced |
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punishment |
a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur |
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positive punishment |
the process in which a behavior decreases when it is followed by the presentation of an unpleasant stimulus |
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negative punishment |
the process in which a behavior decreases when a positive stimulus is removed |
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Albert Bandura |
a pioneer in the study of observational learning |
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observational learning |
(also called imitation or modeling), learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates behavior |
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the main processes involved in observational learning |
attention, retention, motor reproduction, and reinforcement |
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implicit learning |
(or latent learning), unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior |
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insight learning |
a form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into or understanding of a problem’s solution |
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memory |
the retention of information or experience over time |
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the three processes of memory |
encoding, storage, and retrieval |
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encoding |
the way in which information is processed |
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divided attention |
when we have to pay attention to several different things at the same time |
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sustained attention |
(also called vigilance), the ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time |
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the levels of processing in memory |
from shallow to intermediate to deep |
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elaboration |
the formation of a number of different connections around a stimulus at any given level of memory encoding |
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imagery |
an encoding tool that improves memory and makes memory distinctive |
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Allan Paivio's dual-code hypothesis |
memory for pictures is better than memory for words because pictures—at least those that can be named—are stored as both image codes and verbal codes |
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storage |
how information is represented in memory and how long it is retained |
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the Atkinson-Shiffrin theory of memory storage |
from sensory memory to short-term memory and then to long-term memory |
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sensory memory |
the retention of information from the world in its original sensory form for only an instant, not much longer than the brief time it is exposed to the visual, auditory, and other senses |
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echoic memory |
auditory sensory memory, which is retained for several seconds |
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iconic memory |
visual sensory memory, which is retained only for about 1/4th of a second |
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short-term memory |
a limited-capacity memory system in which information is usually retained for only as long as 30 seconds unless we use strategies to retain it longer |
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chunking |
grouping or “packing” information that exceeds the 7 plus or minus 2 memory span into higher-order units that can be remembered as single units |
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rehearsal |
repeating information over and over again to remember it |
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working memory |
a combination of components, including short-term memory and attention, that allows us to hold information temporarily as we perform cognitive tasks; not the same thing as short-term memory |
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Alan Baddeley |
a pioneer in the study of working memory |
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the components of working memory |
- phonological loop - visuospatial sketchpad - central executive |
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long-term memory |
relatively permanent memory storage base |
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the components of long-term memory |
explicit memory and implicit memory |
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explicit memory |
(or declarative memory), a conscious form of memory for specific facts or events and information that can be verbally communicated |
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episodic memory |
(or autobiographical memory), the retention of information about the where, when, and what of our lives |
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semantic memory |
a person’s knowledge about the world |
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implicit memory |
a type of memory in which behavior is affected by prior experiencewithout conscious memory of the experience |
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the subsystems of implicit memory |
procedural memory, classical conditioning, and priming |
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procedural memory |
a memory for skills |
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priming |
taking information that a person has already learned out of storagein order to learn new information |
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schema |
a preexisting mental concept that helps us organize and interpret newinformation |
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connectionism |
the concept that memories are not stored in one specific area of the brain butthroughout various parts of the brain |
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Karl Lashley |
a pioneer in the study of connectionism |
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retrieval |
when information that has been retained in long-term memory is takenout of storage |
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serial position effect |
the tendency to recall the items at the beginning and the end of alist more easily than information in the middle |
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primacy effect |
better recall for items at the beginning of a list |
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recency effect |
better recall for items at the end of a list |
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recall |
a memory task that is used when a person needs to retrieve previouslylearned information from storage; used often on essay exams |
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recognition |
a memory task employed when a person needs to identify certain itemsthat have been presented as familiar; used often on multiple-choice exams |
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the encoding specificity principle |
the information available at the time of encoding tends to beeffective in helping to remember that information |
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context-dependent memory |
a process in which people remember better whenthey attempt to recall information in the same context in which theylearned it |
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reminiscence bump |
the effect that adults remember more events fromthe second and third decades of life than from other decades |
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flashbulb memory |
the memory of emotionally significant events that a person may recallwith much more accuracy than memories of everyday events |
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proactive interference |
when information that was learned at a previous time interrupts thelearning of new information |
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motivated forgetting |
when individuals forget something because it is so painful andanxiety laden that remembering it is intolerable |
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retroactive interference |
the learning of new information disrupts the remembering of previousinformation |
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the tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon |
a type of “effortful retrieval” that occurswhen we can almost remember something and are confident we know itbut cannot retrieve it |
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retrospective memory |
remembering information from the past |
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prospective memory |
when a person is trying to remember to do something in the future |
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absentmindedness |
failure of prospective memory |
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amnesia |
loss of memory |
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anterograde amnesia |
when a person cannot remember new information |
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retrograde amnesia |
when someone cannot remember past information but does not have aproblem forming or retrieving newer memories |
