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320 Cards in this Set
- Front
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prosimians
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Members of a suborder of Primates, in the suboirder Prosimii. Includes leumurs, lorises, and tarsiers.
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anthropoids
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Members of a suborder of Primates, in the suborder Anthropoidea. Includes monkeys, apes, and humans.
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omnnivorous
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Having a diet consisting of many kinds of foods, such as plant materials, meat, and insects.
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primatologists
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scientists who study the evolution, anatomy, and the behavior of nonhuman primates. Those who study behavior in non-captive animals are usually trained as physical anthropologists.
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specialized
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Evolved for a particular function; usually refers to a specific trait, but may also refer to the entire way of life of an organism.
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prehensility
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Grasping, as by the hands and feet of primates.
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Limbs and locomotion of primates
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1. Tendency toward erect posture (especially in the upper body)
2. A flexible, generalized limb structure (aren't restructed to one form of movement. 3. Hands and feet with a high degrees of prehensility, five digits, opposable thumb, nail, and tacticle pads. |
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Diet and teeth of primates
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1. Lack of dietary specialization
2. A generalized dentition |
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The senses and brain of primates
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Color vision, depth perception (stereoscopic vision); eyes towards front of face; visual information transmitted to both hemispheres; visual information araganzed into 3d images by specalized structures in the brain; decreased reliance of sense of smell; expansion and increased in complexity of the brain.
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diurnal
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Active during the day.
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Maturation, learning, and behavior of primates.
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More efficient means of fetal nourishment, longer peiods of gestation, fewer offspring, greater dependence on learned behavior; tendence to live in social groups (permanent association of adult males with the group); tendency towards diurnal activity patterns.
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neocortex
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The more recently evolved portions of the brain's cortex that are involved with higher mental functions and composed of areas that intergrate incoming information from different sensory modalities.
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sensory modalitites
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Different forms of sensation (taste, smell, etc..)
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arboreal
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Tree-living; adapted to life in the trees
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adaptive niche
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The entire way of life of an oprganism; where it lives, what it eats, how it gets foods, how it avoids predators, etc..
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visual predation hypothesis
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Cartmill - forward facing eyes played a role in primate evolution.
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midline
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Anatomical term referring to a hypothetical line that divides the body into left and right halves.
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cusps
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The elevated portions (bumps) on the chewing surfaces of premolar and molar teeth.
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Dental formula
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all Old World anthropoids = 2.1.2.3 = 2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 premolars, 3 molars on each side of midline
Generalized placental mammals = 3.1.4.3 Number of teeth vary among primates. New World monkeys = 2.1.3.3 |
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morphology
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The form (shape, size) of anatomical structures; can also refer to the entire organism.
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quadrupedal
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Using all four limbs to support the body during locomotions; the basic mammalian (and primate) form of locomotion.
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macaques
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A group of Old World monkeys comprising several species, including rhesus monkeys. Most macaque species live in India, other parts of Asia, and nerby islands.
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brachiation
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A form of locomotion in which the body is suspended beneath the hands and support is alternated from one forelimb to the other; arm swinging. Braciators tend to have arms that are longer than legs.
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knuckle walking
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Special form of quadrupealism practiced by gorillas, bonobos, and chimpanzees
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semibrachiators
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Practice a combination of leaping with some arm swinging. Include mariquis, and spider monkeys.
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comparative genomics
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'direct' between-species comparisons of DNA sequences. Different that 'indirect' methods, that include comparing amino acids (only 1 amino acid seperates us from chimpanzees).
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What two bacteria can cause a spontaneous pneumothorax?
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staph and pseudo. pneumo
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noncoding DNA segments
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sequences that do not code for identifiable proteins but in many cases influence the actions of coding sequences. Shows more variation than coding sequences.
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Hominidar/Hominid
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Refers to humans and their bipedal ancestors.
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Tarsiers
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Are the center of a classification debate. They display many prosimian traits, but they are genetically more closely related to anthropoids.
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strepsirhine
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Referring specifically to lemurs and lorises.
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rhinarium
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The moist, hairless pad at the end of the nose seen in most mammals. The rhinarium enhances the an animals ability to smell.
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The most primitive primates are
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lemurs and lorises
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dental comb
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Forward projecting lowert incisors and canines that are used in grooming and feeding. Found in lemurs, lorises, and tarsiers.
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grooming claw
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Feature that sets lemurs and lorises apart. Found on the second toe.
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lemurs characteristics include...
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(Madagascar) Mostly aboreal, some terrestrial, some are quadrupeds, others are clingers and leapers; gregarious and live in groups of 10 to 25 animals, or live in family groups
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lorises (and galago species) characteristics include
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Some are slow climbing form of quadrupedalism, galagos are vertical clingers and leapers; insectivorous, fruits, leaves, gums, slugs; forage alone; feeding ranges overlap; females leave infants behind in nests.
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tarsiers characteristics include...
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(Southeast Asia) nocturnal insectivores; pair bond; enormous eyes unlike other primates.
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Characteristics that distinguish anthropoids from prosimians include...
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Larger body/brain, reduced smell, increased vision, color vision, back of eye socket is formed by a bony plate, brain blood supply different, fusion of mandible at midline, less specialized dentition, different female reproductive anatomy, longer gestation and maturation periods, increased parental care, more mutual grooming.
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Famalies of new world monkeys
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Callitrichidae (marmosets and tamarsins) and Debidae (all others).
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Characteristics of marmosets and tamarsins..
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Smallest of the New World monkeys; aboreal quadrupeds; claws for climbing; eat insects, gums, fuits; mated pair; extensive infant care.
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Characteristics of cebids
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Eat fruits, leaves, and insects; quadrupedal, with some semibrachiators; some have prehensile tails which are used for locomotion and suspension; form monogamous pairs.
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cercopithecines
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The subfamily of Old World monkeys that includes baboons, macaques, and guenons.
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colobines
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The subfamily of Old World monkeys that includes the African colobus monkeys and Asian langurs.
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ischial callosities
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Patches of tough, hard skin on the buttocks of Old World monkeys and chimpanzees.
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Characteristics of cercopithecines...
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omnivorous, cheek-pouches, eat almost anything.
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Locomotion of Old World monkeys
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Arboreal quadrupedalism and semibrachiation.
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sexual dimorphism
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Differences in physical characteristics between males and females of the same species. For example, humans are slightly sexually dimorphic for body size, with males being taller, on average, than females of the same population.
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estrus
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Period of sexual receptivity in female mammals, correlated with ovulation. Includes pronounced cyclical changes of the external genitalia, including swelling and redness.
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Hominids include...
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apes and humans
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The habitat of the chimpanzees, gorrilas, and bonobos are..
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forested areas that are highly fragmented, and the animals are threatened or highly endangered.
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Apes and humans differ from monkeys in the following ways:
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Larger size, no tail, different should/lumbar area, bigger brain, increased period of infant development and dependency.
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Characteristics of Gibbons and Siamangs include...
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smallest of the apes; adapted to feeding while hanging beneath trees; dedicated to brachiation; extremely long arms and permanently curved fingers; eat fruits, flowers, leaves, and insects; not completely monogamous; involved in rearing their young; highly territorial
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Orangutans:
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Represented by two subspecies; usually solitary; almost completely arboreal; travel quadrupedally; frugivorous
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Gorillas are:
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largest primate; many endangered; consist of silverbacks and blackbacks (back hair color, with silverbacks the larger dominant gorillas); knuckle-walkers; vegetarian; leave natal group as young adults
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natal group
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The group in which animals are born and raised.
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Chimpanzees:
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knuckle-walking; eat huge variety of foods; group hunt to kill small mammals (share kill); live in large fluid communities; complex social behavior; males never leave the group in which they are born.
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Bonobos:
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Found south of Zaire River; similar to chimpanzees; more arboreal than chimpanzees; use sex to defuse potentially tense situations.
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Humans:
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Reduced canine size, otherwise teeth typically primate; dependence on vision; most prominent difference is in the brain (intelligence); habitually bipedal; have anatomical structures necessary for speech.
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Causes of endangered primates:
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Over half of non-human primates are are in jeopardy. Habitat destruction, hunting for food (bush meat); and live capture for export or local trade
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bushmeat
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Meat from wild animals, especially in Africa. Caused in part by logging opening up inaccessible regions of the forest to hunters. Some body parts used in traditional medicine.
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Mountain gorillas:
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One of the most endangered primate species, with only 700 alive today. Gorillas are killed because they stand in the way of clear-cutting forests to manufacture charcoal.
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GRASP (Great Ape Survival Project) and WildlifeDirect:
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Organizations that are trying to save the mountain gorillas.
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ecological
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Pertaining t the relationships between organisms and all aspects of their environment (temperature, predators, nonpredators, vegetation, availability of food and water, types of food, disease, organisms, parasites, etc.)
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behavior
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Anythings organisms do that involves action in response to internal or external stimuli the response of an individual, group, or species to its environment. Such responses may or may not be deliberate, and they aren't necessarily the result of conscious decision making.
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behavioral ecology
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The study of the evolution of behavior, emphasizing the role of ecological factors agents of natural selection. Behaviors and behavioral patterns have been favored because they increase the reproductive fitness of individuals.
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Many behaviors in animals..
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are shaped by a species' evolutionary history.
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Cornerstone of the behavioral ecology perspective is..
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behaviors have evolved through the operation of natural selection.
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Much of the behavior of insects and other invertebrates is...
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largely under genetic control; not learned; innate.
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In mammals the proportion of behaviors under genetic control...
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is reduced.
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behavioral genetics
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The study of how genes influence behavior.
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Behavior must be viewed as the product of..
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complex interactions between genetic and environmental factors.
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behavioral plasticity
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The ability learn new bejaviors.
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social structure
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The composition, size, and sex ratio of a group of animals. The social structure of a species is, in part, the result of natural selection in a specific habitat, and it guides individual interactions and social relationships.
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Factors that influence social structure:
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Body size, BMR, diet, distribution of resources, predation, relationships with other non predatory species, dispersal, life histories, distribution and type of sleeping sites, activity patterns, and human activities.
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With animal body size...
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a larger animal requires fewer calories per unit of weight than smaller animals, and are able to retain heat more efficiently, so they require less energy overall.
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Social structure and Diet:
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Nutrition requires, BMR, and body zie evolve together.
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Social structure and BMR (Basal metabolic rate:
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Smaller primates need higher energy foods, and larger primates, such as gorillas, have a lower BMR and can eat less energy-rich foods.
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Social structure and distribution of resources:
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What an animals eats affects where it lives (insects are scattered, and thus, animals that feed primarily on insects do so alone, or in groups of 2 or 3).
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matrilines
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Groups that consist of a female, her daughters, and their offspring. Matrilineal groups are common in macaques.
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Male/female dispersal patterns (when the male leaves their natal group) is...
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leads to finding a mate outside of the natal group. Male dispersal is the most common pattern in primates.
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Gorillas are the only non-human primate that...
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sleeps on the ground. Most primates sleep in trees, and their spacing can be related to social structure and predator avoidance.
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Why are primates social?
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One commonly accepted answer is that the costs of competition are offset by the benefits of predator defense provided by associating with others. Multi-male/multi-female groups are advantageous in areas where predation pressure is high.
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dominance hierarchies
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Systems of social organization wherein individuals within a group are ranked relative to one another. Higher-ranking animals have greater access to preferred food items and mating partners than lower-ranking individuals Dominance hierarchies are sometimes called "pecking orders."
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All primates ____ their position in the hierarchy (dominance hierarchies).
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learn (through gestures and behaviors, some of which are universal throughout the primate order)
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A number of primatologists think the primary benefit of dominance is...
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increased reproductive success of high-ranking animals.
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______ is universal among animals and includes scents and unintentional autonomic responses and behaviors that convey meaning.
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Communication
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autonomic
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pertaining to physiological responses not under voluntary control. An example in chimpanzees would be the erection of body hair during excitement. Blushing is a human example. Both convey information regarding emotional states, but neither is deliberate, and communication isn't intended.
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High ranking baboons ____ the hindquarters of subordinates to express dominance.
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mount. Which may also serve to defuse potentially tense situations.
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Many primates crouch to show..
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submission
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displays
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Sequences of repetitious behaviors that serve to communicate emotional states. Nonhuman primate displays are most frequently associated with reproductive or agnoistic behavior, and examples include chest slapping in gorillas or, in male chimpanzees, dragging and waving branches while charging and threatening other animals.
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Friendly intentions and relationships are reinforced through _____.
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grooming
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affiliative (behaviors)
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Pertain to amicable associations between individuals. Affiliative behaviors, such as grooming, reinforce social bonds and promote group cohesion.
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intragroup
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Within the group, as opposed to between groups (intergroup). Associated with intragroup aggression, which occurs as various signals and displays.
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territories
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Portions of an individual's of group's home range that are actively defended against intrusion, especially by members of the same species.
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Primate groups are associated with a _______ where they remain permanently.
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home range
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Within the home range is a portion called the _____, which contains the highest concentration of predictable resources, and it's where the group is most frequently found.
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core area = the portion of a home range containing the highest concentration and most reliable supplies of food and water. The core area is defended.
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Chimpanzee intergroup interactions are...
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almost always characterized by aggressive displays, chasing, and fighting.
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Common affiliative behaviors include:
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reconciliation, consolation, and simple amicable interactions between friends and relatives.
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______ or ________ can be used to enhance the status of members. For examples, at Gombe, the male chimpanzee Figan achieved alpha status because of support from his brother.
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alliances or coalitions
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Altruism
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Behavior that benefits another while involving some risk or sacrifice to the performer.
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Explanation of altruism in primate species include:
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they perform the act because they share genes, or the individual helps another to increase the chances that, at a future date, the recipients might return the favor (reciprocal altruism).
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conspecifics
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Members of the same species.
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mating consortships
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Temporary relationships that last while the female is in estrus, and the two spend most of their time together, mating frequently. Seen in chimpanzees, and common in bonobos.
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reproductive strategies
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The complex of behavioral patterns that contributes to individual reproductive success. The behaviors need not be deliberate, and they often vary considerably between males and females.
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K-selected
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Pertaining to an adaptive strategy whereby individuals produce relatively few offspring, in whom they invest increased parental care. Although only a few infants are born, chances of survival are increased for each one because of the parental investments in time and energy. Examples of K-selected nonprimate species are bierds and canids.
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r-selected
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An adaptive strategy that emphasizes large numbers of offspring and reduced parental care.
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K-selected and r-selected are...
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relative terms; e.g. mice are r-selected compared to primates by K-selected compared to fish.
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Give the physiological costs and the fact that her reproductive potential is limited by lengthy intervals between births, a female's best strategy is...
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to maximize the amount of resources available to her and her offspring.
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sexual selection
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A type of natural selection that operates on only one sex (usually males) within a species. It's the result of competition for mates, and it can lead to sexual dimorphism with regard to one or more traits.
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The presence or absence of _________ in a species can be a reasonably good indicator of mating structure.
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sexual dimorphism (species that are polygynous have increased SD)
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In species that live in pairs (such as gibbons) or where male competition is reduced, sexual dimorphism in canine teeth and body size is either ______ or _______.
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reduced or nonexistent.
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Infanticide is a reproductive strategy that increases the chances of an individuals own reproductive success because...
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a female cannot come into estrus when she is nursing, so by killing nursing infants, a new male avoids waiting two to three years for them to be warned before he can mate with their mothers.
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In chacma baboons...
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males consistently try to kill infants, and their attacks are highly aggressive, and purposeful. This suggests that infanticide is a reproductive strategy.
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Two crucial facts needed to prove that infanticide increases a male's reproductive fitness and not the result of another cause is...
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1. Infanticidal males don't kill their own offspring 2. Once a male has killed an infant, he subsequently fathers another infant with the victim's mother.
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In the case of Hanuman langurs, DNA results demonstrated that:
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4 out of 5 cases, the killer of an infant subsequently impregnated the victim's mother.
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polyandry
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A mating system where a female continuously associates with more than one male (usually 2 or 3) with whom she mates. Among nonhuman primates, polyandry is seen only in marmosets and tamarins. It also occurs in a few human societies.
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Monkeys and apes reared in captivity without contact with their own mothers...
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not only don't know how to care for a newborn infant, but may also be afraid of it and attack or even kill it. Thus, learning is critically important in the establishment of a mother's attraction to her infant.
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The role of bonding between primate mothers and infants was clearly demonstrated in a set of experiments at the U of Wisconsin Psychologist Harry Harlow when he..
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raised infant monkeys with surrogate mothers made of wire or a combination of wire and cloth. Infants raised with no mother were incapable of forming lasting affectional ties.
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Mothers and infants in nonprimates...
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have a critical period, where the infants develop a closeness with mothers that doesn't always end with weaning. Some mothers and infants may remain close until one or the other dies.
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Male siamangs are actively invovled in...
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..infant care. Presumed fathers participate in infant care in some species.
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One important trait that makes primates, and especially chimpanzees and bonobos, attractive as models for behavior in early hominids may be called _______________.
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cultural behavior
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cultural behavior is ________.
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learned
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Cultural tradition results from..
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offspring observing the activities of parent,s and in turn, their own offspring observe them performing the same activities, which can persist and come to typify an entire group or even a species.
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Earliest reported example of cultural behavior concerned a study group of Japanese macaques on Koshima Island, and regarded ________.
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sweet potato washing (to remove dirt). This was an example of cultural behavior.
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Chimpanzees exhibit ______, which is a behavior once believed to be unique to humans.
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Tool use. By using twigs and grass blades to fish termites from their mounds.
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Chimpanzees making tools for later use is important because it suggests that:
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chimpanzees are involved in an actibity that prepares them for a future task at a somewhat distant location, and this implies planning and forethought. It also suggests that chimpanzees have a preconceived notion of what a finished product needs to be in order to be useful.
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Chimpanzees in several West African study groups use _______ to ________.
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Hammerstones/platform stones to crack nuts and hard-shelled fruit.
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Chimpanzees show regional variation in....
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tool usage and dietary preferences
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anthropocentric
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Viewing nonhuman animals in terms of human motives, and experience and capabilities; emphasizing the importance of humans over everything else.
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A male bonobo named ______ learned to strike two stones together to produce sharp-edged flakes.
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Kanzi. He learned
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The view held by most linguistics is that...
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nonhuman communication is mostly involuntary vocalizations and actions that convey information about emotion state of the animal. Nonhuman animals haven't been considered capable about communication about external events, objects, or other animals.
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Vervet monkeys use specific vocalizations to refer to particular categories of predators, which suggests that...
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these call aren't involuntary, and they don't refer solely to emotional state. However, as far as we know, communication is restricted to the present, and they cannot reference past or future events.
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Language is a set of written and/or spoken symbols, and is said to be ______ because ________.
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arbitrary because the symbol has no inherent relationship with whatever it stands for.
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Other than humans, no mammal can speak because...
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humans have specific anatomy of the vocal tract and language related structures in the brain.
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A chimpanzee named _____ was taught over 132 signs in American Sign Language.
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Washoe
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In the late 1970s, a 2-year old male orangutan named ______ began to use signs after nine month of training, eventually acquiring over 140 signs, some of which that were refused to refer to objects and people that weren't present.
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Chantek
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biological continuum
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Refers to the fact that organisms are related through common ancestry and that behaviors and traits seen in one species are also seen in others to varying degrees. (When expressions of a phenomenon continuously grade into one another so that there are no discrete categories, they are said to exist on a continuum. Color is such a phenomenon.)
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Earliest primates diverged from _____ about ___ mya.
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placental mammals, 75-65 mya
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Unlike fossils from the Paleocene, fossils from the ____ display distinctive primate features.
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Eocene epoch. These fossils were the first "the first primates of modern aspect."
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Features of Eocene primates:
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1) primates 2) widely distributed 3) mostly extinct by end of Eocene. Some of them are probably ancestors of the prosimians (lemurs and lorises).
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Most of the fossils from the Oligocene are:
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Old World anthropids, all of which were discovered in Egypt, the Fayum.
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Apidium
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Found at the Fayum; small (2-3 lbs), likely an arboreal quadruped. Because we have discovered some many postcranial remains. Some paleontologists believe Apidium may lie near or even before the evolutionary divergence of Old and New World anthropoids.
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Aegyptopithecus
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From the Fayum in Egypt; 15 lbs, an arboreal quadruped. A very primitive Old World anthropoid with a small brain and a long snout. Thus it may be close to the ancestry of both major groups of living Old World anthropoids.
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_______ is important because, better than any other know form, it bridges the gap between the Eocene fossils, and the succeeding Miocene hominids.
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Aegyptopithecus. Fossils suggest that the crucial evolutionary divergence of hominoids from other Old World anthropoids occurred after this time.
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The Miocene could be called "the golden age of hominoids" because...
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many thousands of fossils have been discovered from dozens of sights in Africa, Asia, and Europe.
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Miocene African forms:
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Best known genus is Proconsul, which is most likely closely resembles a monkey.
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Miocene European forms:
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The best known of the forms are Dryopithecus. The Greek fossils are called Ouranopithecus (about 9 to 10 mya).
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Miocene Asian forms:
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Largest and most varied group from the Miocene fossil hominoid assemblage. Highly prolific site Lugeng. Best-known genus is Sivapithecus. Lufeng material is usually placed in a seperate genus from Sivapithecus.
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Lufengpithecus
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Fossil material found from the Lufeng site in Southern China.
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Four general points concerning Miocene hominoid fossils:
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They are widespread geographically and numerous; span a considerable portion of the Miocene (23-26 mya); and are poorly understood.
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Conclusions that can be drawn from Micoene fossils:
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Hominoids; mostly large-bodied hominoids; probably not ancestral to any living form; Sivapithecus shows facial features similar to the modern organgutan (suggesting a fairly close evolutionary link); evidence of definite hominids has not been indisputably confirmed.
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large-bodied hominoids
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Those hominoids including the great apes (orangutans, chimpanzees, gorillas) and hominids, as well as all ancestral forms back to the time of divergence from the small-bodied hominoids (gibbon lineage).
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Characteristics of hominids:
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dentition, locomotion, brain size, and toolmaking.
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mosaic evolution
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A pattern of evolution in which the rate of evolution in one functional system varies from that in other systems. For example, in hominid evolution, the dental system, locomotor system, and neurological system (especially the brain) all evolved at markedly differet rates.
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bipedal locomotion
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Walking on two feet. Walking habitually on two legs is the single most distinctive feature of the family Hominidae.
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A revised system of the traditional classification has been proposed because:
|
traditional classification fails to recognize several basic evolutionary relationships among the great apes. A revise system that has been proposed would add the classifications of subfamily and trible.
|
|
|
_______ and ______ are more closely related to us and our bipedal predecessors than are other great apes.
|
chimpanzees and bonobos
|
|
|
hominin (same as hominid)
|
Term used when referring to the human line ("us"). A distinction made at the taxonomic level of tribe. The lineage of bipedal hominoids since its when divergence from our closet cousins.
|
|
|
Bipedalism in hominids...
|
is much more efficient than other primates. In other primates, the knees and hips are bent and they move in a clumsy and inefficient manner.
|
|
|
Advantage of bipedal location include:
|
freeing the hands for carrying objects and for making tools; wider view of surrounding countryside (easier spotting of predators); hypothesized that it aided in cooling early hominids because less of the body is exposed directly directly to the sun, and removed from the ground which is radiating heat; bipedal walking is an efficient means of covering long distances, which assisted with hunting large game.
|
|
|
Anatomical changes for bipedalism include:
|
shortened ilium, and is bent backward and downward, which changes attachment points for muscles that stabilize the hip; remodeling of lower limb to allow full extension of the knee.
|
|
|
Evidence suggests that the ______ was divergent and thus unlike the hominid pattern.
|
large toe
|
|
|
Developed longitudinal arches and a heel are...
|
adaptations to bipedalism
|
|
|
habitual bipedalism
|
Bipedal locomotion as the form of locomotion shown by hominids most of the time.
|
|
|
obligate bipedalism
|
Bipedalism as the inly form of hominid terestrial locomotion. Since major anatomical changes in the spine, pelvis, and lower limb are required for bipedal locomotion, once hominids adapted this mode of locomotion, other forms of locomotion on the ground became impossible.
|
|
|
culture
|
All aspects of human adaptation, including technology, traditions, language, religion, marriage patterns, and social roles. Culture is a set of learned behaviors; it is transmitted from one generation to the next through learning and not by biological or genetic means.
|
|
|
material culture
|
Related to the tools human use.
|
|
|
Bipedalism occurred ____ mya.
|
6
|
|
|
True/False: The earliest hominids (7-5 mya) almost certainly didn't regularly manufacture stone tools.
|
True
|
|
|
sites
|
Locations of discoveries. In paleontology and archaeology, a site may refer to a region where a number of discoveries have been made.
|
|
|
faunal
|
Referring to animal remains; in archaeology, sepcifically refers to the fossils (or skeletonized) remains of animals.
|
|
|
chronometic
|
A dating technique that gives an estimate in actual numbers of years.
|
|
|
artifacts
|
Objects or materials made or modified for use by hominids. The earliest artifacts tend to be tools made of stone or occasionally bone.
|
|
|
relative dating
|
Relative dating methods tell you that something is older or younger than someone else, but not by how much.
|
|
|
biostraigraphy
|
Relative dating technique that compares the fairly regular changes seen in dentition and other anatomical structures in such groups as pigs, rodents, and baboons. Dating of sites is based on the presence of certain fossil species that also occur elsewhere in the deposits whose dates have been determined.
|
|
|
stratigrahy
|
Study of the sequential layering of deposits (stratum), and is a form of relaive dating. Lower stratum is older than higher stratum. However stratigraphuc dating has a number of potential problems including Earth disturbances shifting the strata or materials in them. Also, the elapsed time of any given stratum cannot be determined with much accuracy.
|
|
|
fluorine analysis
|
Can only be used to date remains of bone because the longer a bone lies buried, the more fluorine it incorporates during fossilization. Can only be used for dating bones of the same location because of variables that differ from region to region.
|
|
|
paleomagnetism
|
Relative dating technique based on the shifting nature of the earth's geomagnetic pole. By examining magnetically charged particles encased in rock, geologists can determine the orientation of these ancient "compasses." It is used to double-check other dating techniques.
|
|
|
chronometic dating (also known as absolute dating)
|
Give absolute dates, and are based on the decay of certain radioactive isotopes.
|
|
|
K/Ar dating
|
potassium-argon method, used extensively in dating in the 5-1 mya range. Cannot measure organic material. The best samples for K/Ar dating are those that have been heated to an extremely high temperature.
|
|
|
carbon-14 dating
|
Dating technique that can be used as far back as 75,000 years, but probability of error raises rapidly after 40,000 years.
|
|
|
radiometic
|
Referring to the measurement of radioactive decay. As in radiometic dating techniques.
|
|
|
thermoluminescence (TL)
|
Technique for dating certain archaeological materials that were heated in the past (such as stone tools) and that released stored energy of radioactive decay as light upon reheating.Used especially for dating stone tools.
|
|
|
electron spin resonance (ESR) dating
|
Based on measuring trapped electrons, and can be used on the dental enamel of animals.
|
|
|
In Africa, most fossil discoveries have come from either _______ or _______.
|
East or South Africa.
|
|
|
The Great Rift Valley in East Africa is a great site for finding fossils because:
|
the fault formed by geological shifting leads to faulting, volcanoes, and rapid sedimentation, which creates a landscape that has many geological exposures revealing surface level ancient beds that just might contain fossils of all sorts.
|
|
|
Finding fossils in South Africa is much more difficult than finding fossils in East Africa because
|
fossils are found in caves and fissures (where the animal was trapped and encased in a rock matrix). Generally these fossils are much more difficult to locate, usually less well preserved, and chronometic dating is far more difficult.
|
|
|
Ardipithecus ramidus
|
Site: Aramis
4.4 mya East Africa Bipedal |
|
|
Ardipithecus
|
Site: Middle Awash
5.2-5.8 mya East Africa Probably not bipedal |
|
|
Orrorin tugenesis
|
Site: Tungen Hills
~6.0 mya First hominid with postcranial remains East Africa |
|
|
Sahelanthropus tchadensis
|
Site: Toros-Menalla
~7.0 mya Central Africa Oldest hominid; well preserved cranium; very small-brained; likely bipedal |
|
|
australopiths
|
A colloquial name referring to a diverse group of Plio-Pleistocene African hominids. They are the most abundant and widely distributed of all early hominids and are also the most completely studied.
|
|
|
Major features that all autralopiths shares:
|
Bipedal, small brains, large teeth (particularly the back teeth, with thick to very thick enamel on the molars).
|
|
|
sectorial
|
Adapted for ctting or shearing; among primates, refers to the compressed (side-to-side) first lower premolar, which functions as a shearing surface with the upper canine.
|
|
|
Australopithecus afarensis
|
Hadar and Laetoli. Famous skeleton known as Lucy (3.7-3.5 mya). Shares more primitive features with other early hominoids and with living great apes than do later hominids, who display more derived characteristics. Primitive teeth; crest in the back of cranium; and a small brain. Relative to lower limbs, the upper limbs are longer than in modern humans. Likely not very tall (less than 5 feet). Likely very sexually dimorphic. Efficient bipedal locomotion, and curved fingers
|
|
|
Ancient fossilized footprints were found at ______.
|
Laetoli. Which allowed for us to make a definite statement regarding the locomotor pattern and stature of early hominids.
|
|
|
Australopithecus afarensis is a crucial hominid group because...
|
it comes after the pre-autralopiths, but prior to all later astralopiths as well as Homo, thus, it is an evolutionary bridge, linking together much of what we assume are major patterns of early hominid evolution.
|
|
|
sagittal crest
|
A ridge of bone that runs down the middle of the cranium like a short Mohawk. This serves as the attachment for the large temporal muscles, indicating strong chewing.
|
|
|
Paranthropus
|
Biggest teeth of all, and features suggesting powerful chewing, suggesting its diet was adapted for rough vegetable foods. Fair degree of sexual dimorphism.
|
|
|
Important Paranthropus discovery sites include:
|
northen Kenya on the west side of Lake Turkana. Key finding known as the "Black Skull."
|
|
|
Features on the famous Black Skull places this species between A. afarensis, and the later robust Paranthropus species on the other.
|
Paranthropus aethiopicus
|
|
|
East African Paranthropus fossils are so robust, they were placed in their own separate species, known as _________.
|
Paranthropus boisei
|
|
|
What became of Paranthropus?
|
After 1 million years they vanished without descendants.
|
|
|
Australopithecus africanus (later Australopithecus).
|
(2.5-2.0 mya) small-brained, big toothed (not as big as Paranthropus), well-adapted bipeds
|
|
|
The very first early hominid discovery from Africa occurred at _____.
|
the Taung site
|
|
|
Plio-Pleistocene
|
Pertaining to the Pilocene and first half of the Pleistocene, a time range of 5.1 mya. For this time period numerous fossil hominids have been found in Africa.
|
|
|
Homo habilis (handy man) discovered by Louis Leaky.
|
(1.8 mya) First discovered at Olduvai Gorge. Distinguished from autralopiths by cranial size. Also differences in cranial shape and in tooth proportions. Later discovering from Lake Turkana of better-preserved fossils verified this.
|
|
|
Early Homo and the australopiths lived...
|
at the same time, contemporaneously.
|
|
|
Process regarding fossils:
|
Site surveryed/selected; site excavated; finds designated with specimen numbers for clear reference; cleaning, prepared, studying, and describing fossils; comparing it with other fossil materials (chronologically if possible); assigning taxonomic names to fossil material.
|
|
|
Important points that emerge from Early African Hominids:
|
Restricted ranges; most species at least partially tied to arboreal habitats; very little in the way of an evolutionary trend of increased body size or of markedly greater encephalization; all early African hominids show an accelerated development pattern, quite different from the delayed development pattern characteristic of Homo sapiens.
|
|
|
Early Homo are a partial exception from other Early African Hominids because...
|
this group shows both increased encephalization and numerous occurrences of likely association with stone tools).
|
|
|
biological determinism
|
The concept that phenomena, including carious aspects of behavior are governed by biological factors; the inaccurate association of various behavioral attributes with certain biological traits, such as skin color.
|
|
|
The first scientific attempt to describe the newly discovered variation among human populations was...
|
Linnaeus' taxonomic classification, which placed humans into four separate categories, each with behavioral and intellectual qualities,
|
|
|
Linnaeus' taxonomic classification of humans was success and efficient (true/false).
|
False. This ranking reflected the almost universal European ethnocentric view that Europeans were superior to everyone else.
|
|
|
Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, a German anatomist, classified humans into five races: white, yellow, red, black, and brown, and used criteria other than skin color, arguing that...
|
categories based on skin color were arbitrary and many traits, including skin color, weren't discrete phenomena.
|
|
|
eugenics
|
The philosophy of "race improvement" through the forced sterilization of members of some groups and increased reproduction among others; an overly simplified, often racist view that is now discredited.
|
|
|
The important factor that moved scientists away from racial typologies and classification in favor of a more evolutionary approach was _____________.
|
the synthesis of genetics and Darwin's theories of natural selection during the 1930s.
|
|
|
polytypic
|
Referring to species composed of populations that differ with regard to the expression of one or more traits.
|
|
|
Homo sapiens are a polytypic species because...
|
there's a great deal of genotypic and phenotypic between populations, and even between individuals within the same population.
|
|
|
Within anthropology, the term _____ was proposed to avoid the more emotionally charged term race.
|
ethnicity
|
|
|
race
|
Refers to geographically patterned phenotypic variation within a species.
|
|
|
In the second half of the 20th century, ______________________ replaced the superficial nineteenth century view of race based solely on observed phenotype.
|
the application of evolutionary principles to the study of modern human variation
|
|
|
The genetic emphasis on race dispelled previously held miconceptions that....
|
races are fixed biological entities that don't change over time and that are composed of individuals who all conform to a particular type.
|
|
|
The amount of genetic variation accounted for by differences between groups is vastly exceeded by the variation that exists within groups (True/False).
|
True.
|
|
|
In general, biological anthropologists object to racial taxonomies because..
|
traditional classification schemes are typological, meaning that the categories are distinct and based on stereotypes or ideas that comprise a specific set of traits. This is misleading because any grouping always includes many individuals who don't conform to all aspects of a particular type.
|
|
|
The characteristics that have traditionally been used to define races are ______; that is, they're influenced by several genes and therefore exhibit a continuous range of expression, that is difficult, if not impossibly, to draw distinct boundaries between.
|
polygenic
|
|
|
Genetic and environmental factor contribute to intelligence, but...
|
it's not possible to accurately measure the percentage that each contributes.
|
|
|
IQ scores and _________ are not the same thing.
|
intelligence
|
|
|
Convincing evidence that populations vary in their cognitive abilities exist (True/False).
|
False.
|
|
|
Physical anthropologists and other biologists have who study modern human variation have largely abandoned the traditional perspective of describing superficial phenotypic characteristics in favor of..
|
measuring actual genetic characteristics
|
|
|
polymorphisms
|
Loci with more than one allele. Polymorphisms can be expressed in the phenotype as the result of gene action (as in ABO), or they can exist solely at the DNA level within noncoding regions.
|
|
|
A genetic trait is ________ if the locus that governs it has two or more alleles.
|
polymorphic
|
|
|
cline
|
A gradual change in the frequeuncy of genotypes and phenotypes from one geographic region to another.
|
|
|
As an example of clinal distribution, in regards to ABO blood type in native South American Indians..
|
they have a 0% frequency for the O allele.
|
|
|
As identified by the Human Genome Project, areas of nucleotide repetition exist where the same nucleotide can be copied hundreds of time, known as _________.
|
microsatellites
|
|
|
Point mutations in both coding and noncoding DNA are known as _________.
|
single nucleotide polymorphism (e.x: sickle cell anemia).
|
|
|
slash-and-burn agriculture
|
A traditional land-clearing practice whereby trees and vegetation are cut and burned. In many areas, fields are abandoned after a few years and clearing occurs elsewhere.
|
|
|
The usage of ______________ has contributed to the spread of malaria in Africa.
|
slash-and-burn agriculture
|
|
|
Lactose intolerance is an example of biocultural evolution because...
|
as people continued to select cattle for higher milk yields, they were selecting for lactase persistence in themselves. Many Europeans who are lactose tolerant have pastoral roots. These pastoral ancestors likely consumed huge quantities of milk.
|
|
|
lactase persistence
|
The ability to continue to produce the enzyme lactase in adults. Most mammals, including humans, lose this ability after they are weaned.
|
|
|
population genetics
|
The study of the frequency of alleles, genotypes, and phenotypes in populations from a microevolutionary perspective.
|
|
|
breeding isolates
|
Populations that are clearly isolated geographically and/or socially from other breeding groups.
|
|
|
_______ are a favorite target of microevolutionary studies.
|
Breeding isolates
|
|
|
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
|
The mathematical relationship expressing, under ideal conditions, the predicted distribution of alleles in populations; the central theorem of population genetics.
|
|
|
Factors that act to change allele frequency:
|
1. New variation (mutation) 2. Redistributed variation (gene flow/genetic drift) 3. Selection of "advantageous" allele combination that promote reproductive success (that is, natural selection).
|
|
|
acclimatization
|
Physiological responses to changes in environment that occur during an individual's lifetime. Such responses may be temporary or permanent depending on the duration of the environmental change and when in the individual's life it occurs. The capacity for acclimatization may typify an entire species or population, and because it's under genetic influence, it's subject to evolutionary factors such as natural selection or genetic drift. Examples of acclimatization include tanning and the production of hemoglobin when going to a higher elevation.
|
|
|
Skin color is produced by;
|
production of melanin, which protects us from UV radiation.
|
|
|
Albinos cannot _____ because they lack the genetic mutation that prevents their melanocytes from producing melanin.
|
tan
|
|
|
neural tube
|
In early embryonic development, the anatomical structure that develops to form the brain and spinal cord.
|
|
|
spinda bifida
|
A condition in which the arch of one or more vertebrae fails to fuse and form a protective barrier around the spinal cord.
|
|
|
Natural selection has favored ______ in the areas nearest the equator, where the sun's rays are most direct and thus where exposure to UV light is most intense.
|
dark skin
|
|
|
UV radiation was probably a powerful agent selecting for high levels of melanin production in early humans for these reasons:
|
1) Early hominids lived in the tropics, where UV is more intense. 2) Hominids spent their days outdoors. 3) Early hominids didn't wear clothing that would've protected them from the sun.
|
|
|
Another explanation for distribution of skin color....
|
is that UV radiation depletes folate which causes neural tube defects, thus reducing reproductive success.
|
|
|
vitamin D hypothesis
|
States that the reason that the reason light-skinned individuals exist was because individuals with a vitamin D deficiency were selected against by developing rickets.
|
|
|
vasodilation
|
Expansion of blood vessels, permitting increased blood flood to the skin. Vasodilation permits warning of the skin and also facilitates the radiation of warmth as a means of cooling. Vasodilation is an involuntary response to warm temperatures, various drugs, and even emotional states (blushing).
|
|
|
______ is an effective mechanism for cooling the human body, and aided by our humans lack of hair.
|
Sweating
|
|
|
Bergmann's rule
|
Concerns the relationship of body mass or volume to surface area. In mammals, body size tends to be greater in populations that live in colder climates. This is because as a mass increases, the relative amount of surface area decreased proportionately. Because he is lost at the surface, it follows that increased mass allows for greater heat retention and reduced heat loss.
|
|
|
Allen's rule
|
Concerns the shape of the body, especially appendages. In cold climates shorter appendages, with increased mass-to-surface ratios, are adaptive because they're more effective at preventing heat loss. Conversely, longer appendages, with increased surface area relative to mass, as more adaptive in warmer climates because they promote heat loss.
|
|
|
(in regards to body proportions) In cold climates _______, and in warmer climates ________.
|
human body mass tends, on average, to be greater, with a large trunk.
human body mass tends, on average, to be more linear and tall. |
|
|
Adaptations to cold include:
|
subcutaneous fat; shivering; increased metabolic activity; behavioral activities (wearing clothes, curling up in a ball). People in colder climates maintain higher metabolic rates than those in warmer climates. The highest metabolic rates are seen in Inuits.
|
|
|
Adaptations to high altitude include:
|
increased respiration rate, heart rate, and production of red blood cells; and in developmental acclimatization, people grow more slowly and mature later, have greater lung volume, larger hearts, and are more efficient and diffusing oxygen from blood to body tissues.
|
|
|
hypoxia
|
Lack of oxygen.
|
|
|
A study in Colorado found that infant mortality rates are almost twice as common...
|
among people living at altitudes above 8.200 feet. Some of this is due to preeclampsia, which is a severe elevation of blood pressure in pregnant women after the 20th gestational week.
|
|
|
Entire populations have adapted to high altitudes, as in the case of the __________.
|
indigenous peoples of Tibet and the Quecha. Both peoples of Tibet and the Quechua burn glucose more efficiently.
|
|
|
vectors
|
Agents that serve to transmit disease from one carrier to another. Mosquitoes are vectors for malaria, just as fleas are vectors for bubonic plague.
|
|
|
endemic
|
Continuously present in a population
|
|
|
zoonotic
|
Pertaining to a zoonosis, a disease that is transmitted to humans through contact with non-human animals.
|
|
|
pathogens
|
Any agents, especially microorganisms such as viruses, bacteria, or fungi, that infect a host and cause disease.
|
|
|
_________ such as architectural styles, subsistence techniques, exposure to domesticated animals and even religious practices, all affect how infectious disease develops and persists within and between populations.
|
Cultural factors
|
|
|
HIV is transmitted through
|
bodily fluids, and is an example of the influence of human infectious diseases as a selective agent, as some individuals in the population have a natural immunity or resistance to HIV infection.
|
|
|
pandemic
|
An extensive outbreak of disease affecting large numbers of individuals over a wide area; potentially a worldwide phenomenon.
|
|
|
Selective pressures act on us, but they also act on...
|
pathogens. It is in a pathogens interest to be less virulent so it doesn't kill the host before it has time to spread.
|
|
|
The most probable explanation for the transmission of SIV (related to HIV) from chimpanzees to humans is, as with sooty mangabeys...
|
the hunting and butchering of chimpanzees.
|
|
|
Factors that fundamentally impact disease transmission in today's world:
|
overcrowding in cities, sanitation, travel by airplane, overuse of antibiotics, and, most of all, human population size.
|
|
|
A form of locomotion found among some of the small lemurs and tarsiers
|
Vertical clinging and leaping
|
|
|
Active during the day:
|
Diurnal
|
|
|
Raymond Dart's claim that Australopithecus afarensis was a hominid was rejected by many of his contemporaries because they expected early members of the human family to have:
|
large brains
|
|
|
The principle benefit to chimpanzees who engage in lethal attacks appears to be increased access to:
|
Mating partners
|
|
|
The prime-age male that dominates gorilla social groups is known as:
|
a silverback
|
|
|
Which of the following is not an evolutionary trend of primates?
|
Increasing reliance on the sense of smell
|
|
|
All old World monkeys, apes and humans share which feature?
|
2-1-2-3 dental formula
|
|
|
The gluteus maximus is the largest muscle in the human. Why?
|
It is an important muscle in bipedal walking
|
|
|
Which Miocene hominid is the closest to the ancestry of the modern orangutan?
|
Sivapithecus
|
|
|
When predation pressure is high, we generally find group composition to be:
|
Multi-male Multi-Female
|
|
|
Differs for the isotopes of different elements:
|
a half-life
|
|
|
Is common among primates and reinforces social relationships:
|
grooming
|
|
|
Evolution in which structures evolve at different rates is termed:
|
mosaic evolution
|
|
|
Group living in primates help individuals to identify and protect themselves from:
|
predators
|
|
|
Benefit another individual at some potential cost or risk to oneself:
|
Altrustic behaviors
|
|
|
Which of the following sites having yielded fossil remains of Australopithecus afarensis?
|
Hadar and Laetoli
|
|
|
Which of the following do not prey on primates?
|
bears
|
|
|
Differences in size and structure between males and females:
|
sexual dimorphism
|
|
|
May suggest clues to the orgins of human languages:
|
Ape language experiments
|
|
|
Apes do not speak because:
|
they lack the anatomical structures necessary for spoken language
|
|
|
What hominid species was discovered in Aramis, in the Middle Awash region of Ethiopia?
|
Ardipthecus
|
|
|
Within an individual's lifetime:
|
IQ can change
|
|
|
Having a diet composed primarily of fruits:
|
Frugivore
|
|
|
Unintentional modes of communication among primates (including humans) might include:
|
Enhanced body order ("Fear swear"), raised body hair ("Goose bumps") blushing.
|
|
|
Is learned through observation:
|
sweet potato washing
|
|
|
The long arms and legs of East African Masai, and the short arms and legs of the Inuit conform to:
|
Allen's Rule
|
|
|
Primate evolutionary trends developed because most primates:
|
spend their lives in the trees
|
|
|
What does "primitive" mean in evolutionary biology?
|
most like the ancestor
|
|
|
The period of sexual receptivity in non-human, female primates is called:
|
Estrus
|
|
|
Is the condition whereby visual images are superimposed on one another, provides for depth perception, and is party a function of structures in the brain:
|
Stereoscopic vision
|
|
|
Some European, Middle Eastern and African populations do not have problems digesting milk as adults because:
|
Their recent ancestors had a pastoral (cow or goat herding) subsistence which selected for the continued production of lactase
|
|
|
Which of the following structures are found in cercopithecines?
|
Ischial callosities
|
|
|
In what ways do Bonobos differ from chimpanzees?:
|
The relationships with other sympatric primates species
|
|
|
One of the reasons that East Africa provides such an excellent window into our distant past is because:
|
There is a great deal of geological activity, which not only churns up earlier sediments but also provides database material.
|
|
|
A disadvantage to fluorine analysis is that it:
|
can only be done on bones found in the same area.
|
|
|
Which of the following statements are accurate in describing chimpanzees?
|
They occasionally hunt and eat young monkeys.
|
|
|
An objection to the use of racial taxonomies is that they are:
|
typological in nature
|
|
|
An aspect of material culture that could be a vestige of the earlier hominids:
|
a fragment of a stone tool
|
|
|
Characteristics or developmental stages that influence reproductive rates of individuals are:
|
Distribution of food resources, the types of predators inhabiting the environment
|
|
|
One of the underlying assumptions of behavioral ecology is that:
|
The various components of ecological systems evolved together
|
|
|
Concept that various aspects of behavior are governed by genetic factors:
|
Biological determinism
|
|
|
What biochemical and/or genetic methods have been used to determine the evolutionary relationships of the great apes and humans?
|
DNA hybridization
|
|
|
The social structure of a given primate species is influenced by:
|
dominance hierarchies
|
|
|
According to most primate evolutionary biologist, Aegyptopithecus:
|
evolved before the divergence between Old World Monkeys and apes.
|
|
|
Which of the following tool uses have NOT been seen among chimpanzees:
|
modifying the stone tools they use
|
