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184 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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True or false: The institutional review Board reviews research proposals to assure protection of the rights of human subjects after a study is conducted:
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false.
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The idea that human subjects should be treated fairly and no benefit to which a person is entitled to be denied is called a. Principal of justice, b. Principal of respect for human dignity, c. Principal of beneficence
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a, principal of justice.
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The Tuskegee syphilis study violated which of the following ethical principles? A. Freedom from harms, b. Right to self-determination, c. Right to fair treatment, d. All of the above
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d, all of the above.
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A study of existing data that is of minimal risk may be a candidate for: a. Full institutional board review, b. Expedited review
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b, expedited review.
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True or false: Ethical dilemmas are inevitably in the context of scientific research:
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true.
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Interviews are generally preferable to questionairres because: a. They are less expensive, b. they are easier to analyze, c. The quality of the data tends to be higher, d. There is less opportunity for bias
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see, the quality of the data tends to be higher.
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Questionnaires have the advantage of:a. Offering the possibility of anonymity, b. Having high response rates, c. Eliminating response set biases, d. Being suitable for all types of respondents
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a, offering the possibility of anonymity
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what is the primary advantage of physiological measures? a. The measuring total never affects the phenomena that are being measured, b. One of the easiest types of methods to implement, c. It is unlikely that study participants/subjects can distort the physiological information, d. Their objectivity, sensitivity and precision
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D., their objectivity, sensitivity and precision.
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Open ended questions are more difficult to construct than closed ended questions, true or false?
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false.
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Design decisions evolve while the study is in progress in both quantitative and qualitative studies, true or false?
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false.
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Which of the following is an example of an in vitro measure? a. Electromyogram readings, b. Oxygen saturation readings, c. Urine specimens, d. Renal arterial grams
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c, urine specimens
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the situation in which interobserver reliability would be appropriate is: a. Assessing the stability of the health promoting activity scale administered on two occasions, one month apart, b. Determining whether items on a scale of functional ability are internally consistent, c. Determining whether there is agreement between two people rating on the intensity of activity of psychiatric patients, d. Assessing whether an observer's rating of frustration can predict nursing home residents self-reported satisfaction with care
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c, determining whether there is agreement between two people rating the intensity of activity of psychiatric patients.
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The term emergent design in the context of a qualitative inquiry indicates that a research design emerges: a. During the conduct of the literature review, b. While the researcher develops a conceptual framework, c. During the process of doing constant comparisons, d. While the researcher is in the field collecting data
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d, while the researcher is in the field collecting data.
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One source of measurement error in structured self-report scales is: a. Response bias, b. Inefficiency, c. Heterogeneity, d. Homogeneity
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a, response bias.
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Name four instances in history where people's rights were violated when experiments were conducted with disregard for ethical conduct:
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Nazi Germany, Tuskegee syphilis study, Jewish chronic disease Hospital in Brooklyn, Willowbrook study.
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What happened in the Tuskegee syphilis study?
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it involves 400 African-American men from a poor community. Medical treatment was deliberately withheld to study the course of the untreated disease.
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What happened in the Jewish chronic disease Hospital in Brooklyn?
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elderly patients were injected with live cancer cells.
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What happened in the Willowbrook study?
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mentally retarded children were deliberately infected with the hepatitis virus.
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What is the significance of the Belmont report?
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it provides a model for guidelines adopted by disciplinary organizations in the United States. It is the basis for regulations affecting research sponsored by the ninr
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what are the three ethical principles of the Belmont report?
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beneficence, respect for human dignity, justice.
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What is beneficence?
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freedom from harm and discomfort. Protection from exploitation.
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What is right for human dignity?
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right to self-determination (can quit anytime you want). Also, right to full disclosure (right to know, risks, etc.).
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What is justice?
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rights to fair treatment and rights to privacy.
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What three things do we need to make sure subjects have with informed consent and participant authorization?
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adequate information regarding the research, capability of comprehending information, free choice
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what 14 things are included with the content of informed consent?
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1. Participants status (distinction between research and treatment) 2. Study goals in lay terms, 3. Type of data, 4. Procedures, 5. Commitment (how long will they be part of the study), 6. Sponsorship (is sponsoring this and could there be bias?), 7. Participant selection, 8. Potential risks and benefits, 9. Alternatives, 10. Compensation, 11. Confidentiality (make sure no data is attached to name), 12. Voluntary consent, 13. Right to withdraw and withhold information, 14. Contact information.
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Who keeps copies of informed consent?
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participant and researcher, both signed and keep a copy.
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When is informed consent not required?
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when there is no intervention, when data are collected anonymously, when the existing data from records, specimens and identifying information is not linked to data.
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What is process and sent?
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a transactional process used in qualitative research. Used in qualitative research because it is emergent, you don't know what you will need the next time.
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What three things will participant authorization (stuff told to the participant) include?
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who will receive the information, what type of information is to be disclosed, what further disclosures, the researcher anticipates.
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What is the certificate of confidentiality from the NIH used for?
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to avoid the possibility of forced involuntary disclosure of sensitive research information.
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What six groups are considered vulnerable groups?
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1. children,
2. mentally or emotionally disabled, 3. severely ill or physically disabled, 4. terminally ill, 5. institutionalized people, 6. pregnant women. |
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What is assent?
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if the child is at least seven years old, he or she must also sign the form.
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Name three challenges to analyzing qualitative data:
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1. no universal rules for analyzing qualitative data exist, 2. enormous amount of work is required, 3. you need to reduce data for reporting, so a balance must be maintained between being concise, and maintaining the richness of the data.
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Explain template analysis of qualitative data:
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you use a preset criteria to analyze what was said.
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Explain immersion/crystallization:
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you try to immerse yourself, say for example, for the next two hours.
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Name two methods for organizing qualitative data when the amount of information is small?
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1. Post-it notes to code narrative content, 2. Conceptual files (researcher creates a physical file for each category)
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what do they say about the quality of voice recognition software for qualitative data collection?
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the quality is highly variable.
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How do you start the qualitative analysis procedure?
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you start with a search four broad categories or themes (an abstract entity that).
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What two things are ethnographers always looking for in participants?
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patterns in behavior and thoughts.
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In analysis of ethnographic data, what does the domain consist of?
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unit of cultural knowledge. There is focus on cultural meanings of terms and symbols used in the culture.
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In analysis of ethnographic data, what does taxonomic pertain to?
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a system of classifying and organizing terms to show the internal organization of a domain and relationship among subcategories of the domain.
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In analysis of ethnographic data, what does componential pertain to?
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data analysis for similarities and differences among cultural terms in the domain.
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In analysis of ethnographic data, what does theme pertain to?
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cultural themes are uncovered with an outcome of cultural meaning.
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What seven things do you do in phenomenonological analysis (Colaizzi's method?)
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1. Read all protocols 2. Review each protocol and extract significant statements 3. Spell out the meaning of each significant statements 4. Organize the formulated meanings into clusters of themes 5. Integrate results into an exhaustive description of the phenomenon 6. Formulate an exhaustive description of the phenomenon 7. Ask participants about the findings thus far as a final validating step.
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in grounded theory analysis, what is constant comparison?
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a comparison of elements present in one data source with those of another.
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In grounded theory analysis, what is "fit?"
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identifying characteristics of one piece of data and comparing them with characteristics of another data to determine whether they are similar.
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What is the controversy with analysis of focus group data?
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is the unit of analysis group or individual participants? In groups it involves a scrutiny of themes, interactions, and sequences within and between the groups. With individual, there is maintenance of information of what each person said.
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How are triangulated qualitative quantitative data analyzed?
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narrative data are analyzed to qualitative methods, researchers interpret overall patterns in light of findings. Researchers interpret the data as they read and reread them, categorizing and code them, inductively develop a thematic analysis integrate themes into a unified whole
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what is the primary task for critiquing qualitative analysis?
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find out if the researchers took sufficient steps to validate inferences and conclusions.
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What are the four levels of measurement?
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nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio.
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Describe nominal level of measurement:
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names are assigned to objects as labels. The names may be numbers, but if they are the value of the numerals is irrelevant (there is no less than or greater than relations.).
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Give us some examples of nominal measurements:
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geographical location represented by area code, marital status of a person, make or model of a car.
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Give some examples of nominal measurements used in social research:
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gender, race, religious affiliation, political party affiliation, college major, birthplace.
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Which measures of central tendency can you use to measure nominal data?
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mode
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What is another name for variables that can only be measured nominally?
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categorical variables.
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Describe ordinal level of measurement:
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numbers assigned to objects represent rank of order (1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.).
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What are the variables called in ordinal measurement?
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rank variables.
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Give an example of ordinal measurement:
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results of a horse race (not including time intervals).
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What measures of central tendency can you use to measure ordinal data?
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mode or median.
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Describe interval measurement:
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the numbers assigned to objects have all the features of ordinal measurements, and in addition, equal differences between measurements represent equivalent intervals. The differences between arbitrary pairs of measurements can be meaningfully compared. Addition and subtraction are meaningful. Negative values can be used. Ratios between numbers on the scale are not meaningful, so multiplication and division cannot be used. But one difference can be twice another.
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What measures of central tendency can you use to evaluate interval measure?
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mean, median, mode.
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What are some examples of interval measure?
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year in a calendar, temperature in Celsius or Fahrenheit.
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Describe ratio level of measurement:
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numbers assigned to objects have all the features of interval measurement, and also have meaningful ratios between arbitrary pairs of numbers. Multiplication, division are meaningful.
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Giving some examples of ratio measurements:
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Mass., length, energy.
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Which measures of central tendency can you use to evaluate ratio variables?
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mean, median, mode.
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What is a frequency distribution?
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a systematic arrangement of values from lowest to highest with a count of the number of times each value was obtained
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what does a symmetric distribution look like?
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two halves mirror each other.
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What's does an asymmetric or skewed distribution look like?
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positively or negatively skewed, uneven.
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What is modality?
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number of peaks. Can be uni-mobile, bimodal, multimodal.
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What is the mode?
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the most frequently occurring value in a distribution.
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What is the median?
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point in a distribution of above which and below which 50% of the cases fall
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what is the mean?
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the sum of all scores, divided by the number of scores. The mean is affected by every score
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What is the most widely used measure of central tendency?
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the mean.
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What is the range?
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highest score, minus the lowest score.
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What is the standard deviation?
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the average amount a value deviates from the mean. How far it is from the mean.
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What's does a normal distribution look like?
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symmetrical. Everything on the right is positive and everything on the left is negative.
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What is a contingency table?
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a two dimensional frequency distribution in which the frequencies of two variables are cross tabulated.
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Give an example of a contingency table:
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a table with male and female smokers, showing what percent are non-smokers, like smokers in heavy smokers.
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What are univariate statistics?
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statistical analysis of a single variable for purpose of description (like, for example, computing a mean.).
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What are bivariate statistics?
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statistics derived from analyzing two variables simultaneously to assess the empirical relationship between them.
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What is a layperson's word for central tendency?
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"average" statisticians do not use this word, because there are three measures of central tendency.
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How can correlation between two variables be displayed?
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on a scatterplot.
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What's does a positive correlation look like on a scatterplot?
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slope begins at the lower left corner and extends to the upper right corner.
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What's does no correlation look like on a scatterplot?
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the whole field is filled with thoughts.
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What does strong negative correlation look like on a scatterplot?
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slope starts in the upper left-hand corner and/is down to lower right-hand corner.
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What is correlation?
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an association or bond between variables, with variation in one variable systematicly related to variation in another
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what is Pearson's r?
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a correlation coefficients designating the magnitude of relationship between two variables measured on at least an interval scale (also called the product moment correlation.).
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What is Spearman's rho (P)?
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a correlation coefficient indicating the magnitude of a relationship between variables measured on the ordinal scale.
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What is a correlation coefficient?
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an index summarizing the degree of relationship between variables, typically ranging from +1.00 (perfect positive relationship) to 0.0 (no relationship.) -1.00 would be used for a perfect negative relationship
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what is sampling error?
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the tendency for statistics to fluctuate from one table to another.
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What percentage of values fall within one standard deviation from the mean?
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68%.
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What is the standard error of the mean?
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standard deviation of sampling distribution of the mean. Partly a function of sample size.
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What is point estimation?
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calculating a perimeter (for example, the mean.).
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What is confidence interval?
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the range of values around an estimate. Usually 95 to 99% confidence. Upper and lower limits are confidence limits.
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With null hypothesis, what is a type 1 error?
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rejecting a null hypothesis that is true.
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With null hypothesis, what is a type 2 error?
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excepting the null when it is false.
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Describe a significant level of .05:
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we accept the risk that out of 100 samples from a population, a true null hypothesis would be rejected five times.
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what does statistically significant mean?
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obtained results are not likely the result of chance, at a specified level of probability.
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what does nonsignificant mean?
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observance different or relationship could have resulted from chance fluctuation.
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What is a two-tailed test?
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a test in which both ends of the sampling distribution are used to determine improbable values.
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What type of hypothesis is a two-tailed test used for?
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nondirectional
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What is a one tailed test?
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a test in which only values in one tale of the distribution are considered in determining significance.
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What's type of hypothesis is the one tale tests used for?
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directional hypothesis.
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Describe parametric tests:
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they involve the estimation of the parameter. They require measurement of at least an interval scale. They involve several assumptions, such as that variables are normally distributed in the population.
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Describe nonparametric tests:
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they do not estimate parameters. There are less restrictive assumptions about the shape of variables distribution. They are useful when data cannot be in an interval level, or when distribution is not normal, or when sample size is very small.
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What is between subjects design?
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a design in which there are separate groups of people being compared (e.g., smokers and non-smokers.).
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What is within subjects design?
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a design in which a single group of subjects is compared under different conditions or at different points in time (e.g., before and after surgery).
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What are the six steps for hypothesis testing?
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1. select an appropriate test statistic, 2. Establish level of significance, 3. select a 1 tailed or 2 tailed test, 4. Compute a test statistic (using software), 5. Determine the degrees of freedom (df)., compare the test statistic with a table value
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What is a t test?
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a parametric statistical test for analyzing the difference between two means
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what is a paired t test?
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a test for analyzing the difference between two means, for two dependent groups. (E.g. pre test the means, and then posttest the means six months later.)
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What would be an example of a T. test for independent groups?
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survey for anxiety, give the same survey to two different groups. Then compare the means. Look at the difference.
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Name three nonparametric tests to tell difference between two group means:
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median test, mann Whitney u test, Wilcoxon signed rank test.
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Explain median test:
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uses deviations from the median.
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Explain mann-Whitney u test:
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tests difference between two independent groups.
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Explain Wilcoxon signed rank test:
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tests difference between paired scores.
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What is analysis of variance (ANOVA?)
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a statistical procedure for testing, mean differences among three or more groups by comparing variability between groups to variability within groups
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what is f ratio?
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the statistic obtained in several statistical tests (e.g. ANOVA) in which variation attributable to different sources (between groups, within groups) is compared.
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What is a post hoc test?
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a test for comparing all possible pairs of groups following a significant test of overall group differences (e.g.. In an ANOVA).
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What is one way ANOVA?
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used to test the relationship between one categorical independent variable and a continuous dependent variable
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in nonparametric ANOVA, what is the Kruskal-wallis test?
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a test used when the number of groups is greater than two and one way test for independent groups is desired.
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In nonparametric ANOVA, what is the Friedman test for ANOVA?
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a test where multiple measures are obtained from the same subjects.
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What is the chi-square test?
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a test used to test differences in proportion. Used to test hypothesises about the proportion of cases that fall into different categories. Used to compare and observed frequencies and expected frequencies.
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What is the Fisher's exact test?
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a tests used to test the significance of difference of proportions from to peer groups. With a small sample size, you could not use chi-square, you would use fischers. It's is a paired comparison.
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What is pearson's r used for?
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to test hypotheses about population correlations. To variables are measured on at least the interval level.
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What is spearman's rho used for?
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is used when assumptions for a parametric test are violated, or data are ordinal.
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What is a power analysis?
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a procedure for estimating the likelihood of committing a type 2 error
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what are the four components of power analysis?
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1. Significance criterion, alpha 2. Sample size, N, as sample size increases, power increases 3. Effect size estimate of how strong the relationship is between the independent and dependent variable is in the population 4. Power or 1 - probability of rejecting a false null hypothesis. Conventional value is usually .80, which means that there is 20% risk for a type 2 error. (Know how to look at the tables, hand outs from 11/19 lecture)
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What are nonparametric tests?
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a class of statistical tests that do not involve stringent assumptions about the distribution of critical variables.
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What is linear regression?
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makes prediction about the values of one variable based on values of a second variable.
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What is multiple regression?
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a method of predicting a continuous dependent variable on the basis of two or more independent (predictor) variables.
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What is removed in ANCOVA?
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effect of compounding variables (covariates) before testing whether mean group differences are statistically significant.
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What are inferential statistics based on?
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the laws of probability.
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What do inferential statistics provide?
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a means for drawing conclusions about a population, given data from a sample.
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In quantitative data analysis, what is coding?
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the process of transforming information into numbers. Assigned a code to each variable including missing data. Even if some variables are naturally quantitative, there is a need to decide on a method (e.g. height may be recorded in inches).
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What is data cleaning?
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checking for outliers and wild codes. Frequency distributions are helpful. Wild codes are values that are not possible.
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What do you do when you assess nonresponse bias?
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compare characteristics of people who did or did not participate in the study.
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What is a unhypothesized result?
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a relationship that were not considered when designing the study. Result was opposite to predicted
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which section of a quantitative study points out limitations?
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discussion section.
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The tendency of statistics to fluctuate from one sample to another is known as a
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sampling error.
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___________ Occurs when the investigator does not find statistical significance, but a real difference exists in the world
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type 2 error.
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___________ Occurs when the investigator concludes that there is a real (statistically significant) difference, but, in reality, there is no difference
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type 1 error.
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When a researcher is examining smoking history, body weight, cholesterol value as predictors of blood pressure, the type of statistics used could be:
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multiple regression.
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You are conducting a study to determine group differences in mean scores of patients who were asked to complete pre-and post-state Spielberger anxiety inventory. The statistical tests you would use is:
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paired t-test.
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What are univariate statistics?
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statistical analysis of a single variable for purpose of description (e.g., computing a mean).
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What are bivariate statistics?
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statistics derived from analyzing two variables simultaneously to assess the empirical relationship between them
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What is a self-report?
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a method of collecting data that involves a direct report of information by the person who is being studied. Its
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What are some advantage of self-reports?
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they are direct, versatile, and yield information that is difficult to gather.
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What are two weaknesses of self-reports?
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validity and accuracy.
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give one example of a projective technique:
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having a child do a drawing
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what are some advantages of observations?
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they are versatile, can be used to collect a variety of data, they are well-suited to nursing research.
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What are some disadvantages of observations?
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distorted behaviors of participants when they are aware they are being watched (reactivity), also there can be observer bias.
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What are some advantages of biophysiological measure?
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they tend to yield high-quality objective and valid data, they are cost-efficient, they are generally available in health care settings.
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Re: dimensions of data collection, what is structure?
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use of a planned on what information to gather and how. Maybe structured for quantitative studies, or unstructured for qualitative studies.
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Re: dimensions of data collection, what is quantifiability?
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qualities are quantified or reported in narrative format.
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Name two types of qualitative self-reports:
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interviews, diaries or journals.
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What are the four phases of the participant observer role?
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1. Observation and active listening, 2. Observation with limited participation, 3. Participation with continued observation, 4. Reflection, reconfirmation of findings with informants.
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What are the three levels of observation with unstructured data?
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descriptive, focused (on one observation) and the selective
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with observational records, what's does descriptive describe?
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what is happening now.
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With observational records, what is reflective describing?
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what happened in the past.
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name two structured self-report instruments:
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1. interview schedule (either by phone or face-to-face),
2. questionnaires (SAQ, respondents complete the questionnaire). |
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Name the two types of structured questions:
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open-ended questions, closed ended questions
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name two advantages of open-ended questions:
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respondents get to use their own words, they are easy to construct.
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Name disadvantages of open-ended questions:
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analysis is difficult and time-consuming, participants may be less willing to compose responses.
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Name some advantage of closed ended questions:
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they are difficult to construct, however, they are easy to administer and analyze. They are more efficient.
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What type of respondents prefer closed ended questions?
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people who are unable to express themselves verbally
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name some disadvantages of closed ended questions:
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important responses may be overlooked, some respondents may object being forced into responses that they do not precisely believe
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what is a dichotomous question?
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a closed ended questions with two answers.
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Give an example of a likert scale:
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one to five, agree strongly worth disagree.
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Give an example of a visual analogue scale:
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a line, poor to good, no numbers just point to where.
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What is a q sort?
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a neurophysiological test that involves sorting cards. Hard for some people, not often used.
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What is a vignette?
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a short story with a situational scenario.
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What are some advantages of questionnaires?
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they are less costly, take less time to administer, anonymous, reduced interviewer bias.
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Name some advantages of interviews:
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good response rate, clarity is assured, better depth of questioning, supplementary data can be given.
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When preparing response alternatives, how do we make the alternatives mutually exclusive?
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make sure there is no overlap.
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Give an example of a filter question:
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a "no" answer can eliminate all other questions. Or, "if yes, skip questions 7 8 and 9
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name three ways we can administer structured self-report instruments:
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In person distribution, mail, Internet.
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What are acquiescence response sets?
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always agree or disagree. These are the yea sayers or nay sayers
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what is the halo effect?
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in the evaluation of structured observation, the tendency to be influenced by a characteristic in judging other unrelated characteristics (similar to people wanting to be desirable.).
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What is an invivo measure?
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performed directly in or on living organisms. Used to measure bodily functions (blood pressure, PA line.).
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What are in vitro measures?
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performed outside the organisms body. Like, for example, a urine specimen.
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What are some disadvantages of biopysiological measures?
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tools may affect the variable being measured. Also, interferences may create artifact.
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What are some advantages of getting data from existing records?
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economical, you can see things over time, you don't have to worry about participant cooperation.
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What are some disadvantages of getting data from existing records?
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access could be limited. Data could be out of date.
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What's type of studies make use of structured data collection?
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quantitative. Qualitative use unstructured
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