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185 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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List the levels of organization of a multicellular animal, beginning w/ molecules.
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molecules-->cells-->tissue-->organs-->organs systems-->organism
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List 5 features common to organisms.
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1)organisms are organized
2)acquire materials and energy 3)respond to external stimuli 4)adapt |
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Define evolution.
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Evolution is a descent of species from one common ancestor, with genetic modifications that make each species more suited to it's environment.
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What is the smallest unit of life?
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Small molecules join together to form larger molecules within a CELL. Although a cell is alive it is made from nonliving molecules therefore making a cell the smallest unit of life.
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What is the order of "biological organization?"
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organism population, community, ecosystem, biosphere.
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define photosynthesis.
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Both chemical cycling and energy flow begin when producers(such as grass and plants) "take in" solar energy and inorganic nutrients to produce organic nutrients(food)<--This is known as photosynthesis(Refer to pg 5 in Essentials of biology)
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define homeostasis.
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For metabolic processes to operate, living things need to maintain stable body temps, moisture level, acidity, and other physiological factors. homeostasis is the maintenance of internal conditions within certain boundaries.
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The ecosystem is characterized by (1) chemical cycling and (2)energy flow.
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Both chemical cycling and energy flow begin when producers(such as grass and plants) "take in" solar energy and inorganic nutrients to produce organic nutrients(food)<--This is known as photosynthesis. (1)Chemical cycling "occurs" as chemicals move from one consumer to another consumer in a food chain(ex. of consumers are rabbit, birds, all animals), it also "occurs" when decomposers(ex. death-->decay) return inorganic nutrients to the producers.(2)energy flows from the sun to the plants and other members of the food chain as they feed on one another. Energy gradually dissipates and returns to the atmosphere as heat.(refer to pg 5 in essentials of biology)
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what is chemical cycling?
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the actions of a chemical being consumed from one consumer to another in a food chain.(ex. of consumers are rabbit, birds, all animals), it also "occurs" when decomposers(ex. death-->decay) return inorganic nutrients to the producers.(Refer to pg 5 in Essentials of biology)
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Contrast community with an ecosystem.
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-community is a species population interacting in a particular place.
-ecosystem is community together with the physical environment with which it interacts.(grasslands full of grass, rabbits, hawks forming populations of diff. species which feed on one another, a food chain.) |
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taxonomy
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a classification of organisms that biologist use to divide species into groups.
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Describe the 3 domains.
Domain bacteria Domain archaea Domain eukarya |
-Both domain bacteria & domain archaea contain prokaryotes(are unicellular & lack membrane-bounded nucleous found in the eukaryotes of domain eukary)
-Archaea live in aquatic environments that lake oxygen, or are too salty, too hot, or too acidic for most other organisms to live in. -bacteria is found almost everywhere. in the water, soil, atmosphere, on our bodies, inside our bodies. some cause diseases some perform services. they're also used to conduct genetic research.(produce innumerable products in our factories, and help purify our water in our sewage treatment plants. |
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Domain Eukarya has four kingdoms. Describe each.
protists fungi plants animals |
-protists range from unicellular to a few multi-cellular organisms. some are photosynthesizers and other must ingest their food.
-fungi are the familiar molds, and mushrooms that, along w/ many types of bacteria, help decompose dead organisms. -plants are well known as multi-cellular photosynthesizers. -animals are multi-cellular organisms that ingest their food. |
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scientific naming(are based on latin, a universal language)
biologist give each thing a 2 part scientific name called what? |
BINOMIAL NAME.
The first word is the genus(sometimes abbr), and the second word is the epithet of species within a genus. |
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list the 8 classification categories from least to greatest
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species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, and domain.
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explain why scientists prefer to refer to organisms by their scientific name rather than their common name?
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because common names tend to overlap.
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list the 4 kingdoms in domain eukarya.
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fungi, animalia, plantae, and protista
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the life-domain whose members live in very harsh environments, such as salt lakes and hot springs, is called?
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archaea
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the order of scientific method is as follows:(refer to pg 8,9 in essentials of biology)
observation hypothesis experiments/further observations conclusion describe each |
-observation: study by using the BODY SENSES, also by using EQUIPMENT like a microscope to help what is beyond our ability to sense. They can also observe from PAST STUDIES or COMMUNICATE with others who are also in the same study.
-hypothesis: scientist use inductive reasoning. it occurs whenever a person uses creative thinking to combine isolated facts/study into a cohesive whole. -experiments/further observation: scientists use experimental design to ensure results will be meaningful in less not constant an experimental variable research is done. this is one or more test groups are exposed to the experiment variable, but 1 other group, called the control group. the data(mathematical data:graph/ table, and or, statistical data: surveys) is also an important variable for experiments and further observation. -conclusion: does or doesn't the studies/data support the hypothesis. |
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what is the control group in an experiment?
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the single group that is not exposed to the experiment variable, being used to compare or contrast for studies.
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what is scientific theory?
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the ultimate understanding of the natural world.
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basic theories of biology
-the cell theory -the gene theory -the theory of evolution(unifying concept of biology) |
-the cell theory:says that all organisms are composed of cells.
-the gene theory: says that inherited information dictates the form, function, and behavior of organisms. -the theory of evolution: that all organisms have a common ancestor, and each 1 is adapted to a particular way of life. |
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the theory of evolution
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-is considered the unifying concept of biology bcus it pertains to many diff aspects of organisms.
-scientist are able to understand the history of life, the variety or organisms, & the anatomy, physiology, & the development of organisms. |
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what is matter?
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it refers to anything that takes up space and has a mass.
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what is an element?
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it is a substance that cannot be broken down into another substance by ordinary chemical means.
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both the earth's crust and all organisms are made up of what 6 elements?
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CHNOPS: carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur. refer to pg 10 in "into to bio." figures of each atom
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what does the "atomic theory" state?
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that elements consist of tiny particles called atoms.
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what is the "atomic symbol"?
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the atomic symbol is 1 or 2 letters representing the element and it's atoms. each element contains only one kind of atom, the same name is given to an element and it's atoms.
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what is the "mass number" connected to the atom? (refer to pg17 in "intro. to bio."
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the mass number of an atom depends upon the presence of subatomic particles(neutrons, protons, and electrons). In effect the mass # is just about equal to the # of protons and neutrons.(they are allowed 1 atomic mass each) and the electrons are so small and their mass is usually measured 0.
-the mass # is located below the atomic symbol in the periodic table. |
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these are subatomic particles
define: refer to pg17 in "intro to bio." -neutrons -protons -electrons |
-neutrons: have no electrical charge. (located in the center of the atom with protons to make up the nucleus)
-protons: have a positive charge. (located in the center of the atom with the neutrons to make up the nucleus) -electrons: have a negative charge. (these move around the nucleus) |
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what is the "nucleus"? refer to pg17 in "into to bio"
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the nucleus is made up of 2 subatomic particles located in the center of the atom:protons, and neutrons. the remaining sub. particles is the electrons which move about the nucleus.
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why would biologist measure with "mass #" instead of atomic weight?
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because mass is constant while weight changes according to the gravitational force of the planet.
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what is the "atomic #"? refer to pg17 in "into. to bio."
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it's the number of protons in an element which is the same # of atoms.
it's located above the atomic symbol in the periodic table. |
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what does a PET(positron-emission tomography) scan do and might diagnose?
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it is a way to determine the comparative activity of tissues, and it can detect a malfunctioning thyroid, a brain tumor, alzheimer disease, epilepsy, or a possible stroke occurance. in a PET scan, the red area indicates greatest metabolic activity an blue areas least.
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what are "isotopes"?
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are atoms of the same element that differ in the # of neutrons. in other words isotopes have the same # of protons but they have different mass #s.(they are excess neutrons are unstable and may decay and or emit radiation)
-packets of radioactive isotopes can be placed in the body so that the subatomic particles emitted destroy only cancer cells. |
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what does geiger counter machine do?
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detects radio active isotopes(atoms w/ excess neutrons and are unstable and may decay or emit radiation)
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the periodic table:(pg17 in "intro. to bio."
-what does the horizontal row stand for? -what does the vertical column stand for? -what are the atoms called in column 8? |
-the horizontal row is the particular period the elements belong to. it tells u how many shells an atom has.
-the vertical column is the particular group the elements belong to. it tells you how many electrons there are in the outer shell. -in column 8:noble gases, they rarely react w/ another atom. |
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what is the "octet rule"?
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-an atom with w/ 1 shell is complete when it has 2 electrons. ex:H only has 1 electron in its electron shell.
-if an atom has 2 or more shells, the outer shell is most stable when it has 8 electrons. |
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what are the "electron shells" in an atom?
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they are the energy levels. negatively charged electrons are attracted to positive electrons, therefore it takes an increasing amount of energy to push them father away from the nucleus. electrons in outer shells, therefore contain more energy than those in inner shells.
-the 1st shell is called electron shell, and the outer shell/s is called the valence shell. the valence shells determines chemical reactivity. |
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define "molecule"
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a group of atoms bonded together
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define "compound"
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when a molecule contains atoms of more than one element.
ex: sodium(Na) can combine w/ chlorine(CI) to form sodium chloride(NaCI) the compound we know as table salt. |
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contrast mass # w/ atomic #.
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the mass # is approximately the sum of the protons & neutrons in an atom. it is located @ the bottom of the atomic symbol. atomic # is the # of protons in an atom; & is located at the top of the atomic symbol.
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list some uses of radioactive isotopes in biology and medicine.
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uses of radioactive isotopes include imaging of body parts(PET scan), sterilizing of medical equipment, cancer therapy, & increased storage life of produce.
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what subatomic particle that carries and electrical charge is called the
electron, proton, or neutron? |
proton
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when an atom has 2 or more out shells, the outer shell will be most stable if it contains 8 electrons. this concept is called
-valence rule -rule of eight -octet rule -isotope rule |
octet rule
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when 2 oxygen atoms join together, a _____ is formed.
-mixture -shell model -compound -molecule |
molecule
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how does an atom become an "ion"?
what is an "ionic bond"? refer to pg20 in "into to bio" |
when 1 atom gives up an electron and another atom gains an electron so that both atoms outer shells become filled.
example:sodium transfers 1 electron to the chloride atom(the sodium gives up and the chloride gains), making both atoms into -->sodium ion(Na+) and chloride ion(Cl-) -positive and negative ionic compounds attract forming ionic bonds.(NaCl) also known as table salt. |
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what is a "covalent bond"?
refer to pg20 in "into to bio" |
results when 2 atoms share electrons in order to have a complete outer shell. example: 2 hydrogen atoms only have one electron, they can covalent bond together by sharing the 2 electrons, also known as H-H. another example: oxygen atoms only have 6 electrons, to complete their octets a double covalent bond occurs. they share 4 electrons together forming O=O. it is also possible to form a triple covalent bond result w/ 3lines instead of 2 or just 1.
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contrast ionic bond with covalent bond.
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ionic bond is when one atom "gives" up an electron and one atom "gains" an electron to complete their outer shell. covalent bonds are formed when 2 atoms try to complete their octets by "sharing" electrons.
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methane is formed by "covalent bonding" between carbon and hydrogen, how many hydrogen atoms would be bonded to the carbon atom?
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the carbon atom requires 4 electrons to fill it's outer shell, so it bonds with 4 hydrogen atoms.
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what is a "polar" bond?
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a bond in which the sharing of electrons between atoms is unequal.
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what is a "hydro" bond?
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the positive hydrogen atoms in one molecule are attracted to the negative oxygen atoms in other water molecules.
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define hydrophilic
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hyrdro-water
phil-love molecules attracted to water |
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define hydrophobic
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hydro-water
phobic-fear non-ionized and non-polar molecules that are not attracted to water |
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contrast an acid with a base.
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an acid dissociates in water to release hydrogen ions. a base either takes up hydrogen ions or releases hydroxide ions.
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what is "pH scale" used for?
refer to pg 26 in "into to bio." |
to indicate the acidity or basicity(alkalinity) of a solution. the -pH scale ranges from 0-14
-a pH at 7 represents a neutral state(equal concentrations of hydrogen ion & hydroxide ion) as in water. -a pH below 7 is acidic, bcus hydrogen ion is greater than hydroxide. -a pH above 7 is basic. |
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what do you learn about in "inorganic chemistry", "organic chemistry", and define organic.
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-inorganic chemistry you learn about the chemistry of the non-living world.(water is considered an inorganic molecule)
-organic chemistry you learn about the chemistry of the living world. -in order for a molecule to be classified organic it must contain carbon and hydrogen. |
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describe the properties of a carbon atom that make it an ideal foundation for life.
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because the carbon can bond with up to 4 different elements. carbon to carbon bonds are stable, so long chain can be built. these chains can be variable in length and branching patterns. some carbon molecules can create isomers.(molecules w/ the same molecular formula but a diff. structure, & therefore a diff. shape.
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list the 4 classes of organic molecules.
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carbohydrates, lipids, protein, and nucleic acids.
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what does the term "carbohydrate" mean?
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it refers to a single sugar molecule or 2 sugar molecule bonded together.
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define monosaccharides
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mono-1
saccharide-sugar -they are simple sugars |
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glucose has 2 important isomers(molecules w/ the same molecular formula but a diff. structure/shape).
refer to pg 33 in "into. to bio." |
fructose
galactose -it is also the molecule that is broken down in nearly all types of organisms as an "immediate source of energy" |
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define disaccharide
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di-two
saccharide-sugar contains two monosaccharides bonded together. (brewing beer relies on maltose, a dissaccharide derived from barley. during the production of beer yeast breaks down maltose to 2 units of glucose and then uses glucose as a source of energy. this process is called fermentation, which results and produces ethyl alcohol.) |
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what is sucrose
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-a disaccharides(a molecule containg 2 simple sugars) acquired from sugar beets, and sugar cane. we use in cooking and sweeteners.
-sucrose is broken down in our bodies into fructose and glucose, and if the body doesn't need more energy at the moment it is stored as fat. |
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foods that contain high fructose syrup
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commercial drinks;soda
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how is glucose stored in plants and animals?
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glucose is stored in the granules inside plant cells as starch(non-branched or branched), and animals store glucose as glycogen. glucose is released from the liver cells controlled by hormones. after eating the pancreas releases the hormone insulin which promotes storage of glucose as glycogen in the muscle(highly branched).
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what is cellulose?
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it is the most abundant of all carbohydrates. plants cell walls contain cellulose. some examples are found in wood, tree trunks, and cotton fibers.digestive juices in animals cannot digest cellulose. except for horses, cows, and other ruminants. they contain microorganisms to help break down cellulose as glucose. in humans cellulose has the benefit of serving as a dietary fiber to help maintain regular elimination.
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are lipids soluble or insoluble in water?
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insoluble due to their non-polar hydrocarbon chains. Examples include; salad dressing(contain vegetable oils), bacon fat, lard, butter,corn oil, olive oil, and coconut oil) in animals, fat is used for insulation, and long term energy storage. they also contain oil glands which secrete oil to water proof the skin, feather and hair. in plants, oil is stored for long term energy.
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what is phospholipids?
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they are important components of the plasma membrane that surround cells. it is a type of lipid, and similarly constructed like fats and oils.
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steroids
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steroids is another diff. type of lipid, constructed differently than fats and oils. it's stored as cholesterol in animals and is an important type of lipid within the body. some hormones contain steroids, such as the sex hormone.
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describe the significance of glucose in living systems?
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they use glucose as the primary source of energy.
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explain why humans cannot utilize the glucose in cellulose.
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humans don't have digestive juices to digest cellulose. the cellulose in plants are beneficial to the digestive tract to help maintain regular elimination.
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compare and contrast cellulose with chitin.
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the glucose subunit is linked the same way for both cellulose and chitin. in contrast, chitin has an amino group attached to each glucose molecule. cellulose is found in plant cell walls, while chitin is found in the exoskeleton of some animals.
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among living things, the most common among polysaccharide structural carbohydrates is:
-starch -glycogen -keratin -cellulose |
-cellulose
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which 1 of the following functional group is associated with fatty acids?
-phosphate -amino -carboxyl -hydroxyl |
-carboxyl
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the hard body parts of insects, and crabs are composed of polysaccharide called
-cellulose -chitin -glycogen -glucose |
-chitin
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cell membranes are composed mainly of which type of lipids?
-phospholipids -waxes -steroids -glycerides |
phospholipids
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describe saturated fatty acid and list an example
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they have no double bonds between the carbon atoms, and an example would be butter. they are solid at room temperature.
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describe unsaturated fatty acid and list an example
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they have double bonds in the carbon chain where ever the number of hydrogen is less than 2 per carbon atom. and an example would be canola oil. they are liquid at room temperature.
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what cardio vascular disease accumulates plaque in the blood vessels?
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atherosclerosis. resulting in high blood pressure, and heart attacks.
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describe trans fats and list examples.
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trans fats are vegetable oils hydrogenated commercially to make them solid.even more harmful than natural occurring saturated. margarine, baked goods, fried foods
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canola oil, safflower oil, and olive oil are all examples of good fatty acids. they contain mainly monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats. list in order for ur own benefit what is healthiest.
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canola oil, safflower oil, olive oil, beef fat, butter, then coconut oil.
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describe phospholipids and why it is important to humans and other organisms.
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phospholipids are constructed similar to fat, except for the 3rd fatty attached to the glycerol also known as the "charged" phosphate group.... group together, they become bilayer and the phosphate heads project outward and the tails inward in the membrane of a cell.
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where are steroids derived from
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steroids contain 4 fused rings and are derived from cholesterol. their effect on living organisms depend on the attached group creating testosterone, and estrogen.
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compare and contrast a saturated fatty acid with an unsaturated fatty acid.
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they both contain fatty acids. saturated fats are not good for the body, and can lead to atherosclerosis. they're solid at room temp., and don't have double bonds. whereas unsaturated opposite.
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explain why phospholipids form a bilayer in a watery substance.
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because the polar heads arrange their hydrophilic are projected outwards.
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what effects on the body does steroids, synthetic testosterone have?
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it upsets the normal hormonal balance. the males develop breast; women tend to grow facial hair and loose hair on their heads. common disorders to their health include heart, kidney, liver, and psychological problems.
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protein is the primary importance in the structure of cells, what are some of their functions.
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-support: are structural providing protein in a spider web. keratin, the protein that makes up hair and finger nails, and collagen, also the protein that gives support to skin, ligaments, and tendons.
-metabolism:some proteins are enzymes therefor speeding up chemical reaction. -transport:channels and carrier proteins in the plasma membrane allows substance to enter and exit the cells. -defense: some proteins called anibodies, combine with disease causing agents to prevent them from destroying cells, and upsetting homeostasis of the internal environment. -regulation: some regulatory proteins are hormones. they influence metabolism. -motion: the contractile proteins actin and myosin allows the body to contract. |
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what are amino acids?
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they are subunits of proteins.they create peptide bonds and polypeptide chains(a chain of amino acids joined by peptide bonds) they can come in 4 shapes
-primary: a chain of amino acids -secondary: after the chain is formed it coils or folds in a particular way. an ex. is fibrous proteins such as keratin in hair and nails. horns, feathers & a spiders web. the largely pleated sheets are collagen, gives shape to skin, tendons, ligaments, cartilage, and bones. -tertiary: is the structure of globular proteins. their rounded folding, and twisting. an ex. are enzymes to help speed up reaction. -quaternary: an ex. are hemoglobin and certain enzymes. they consist of more than one polypeptide each with its own primary, 2ndary,tertiary strcuture. |
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nucleic acids are DNA AND RNA. describe.
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DNA and RNA are detected in the nucleus of cells.
-DNA: stores genetic info.containing genes(genes are sequence of amino acids in proteins). -RNA: are the helper that takes this info to the site of protein synthesis. nucleic acids in sugar form are polymers, in which this monomer is called a nucleotide |
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what is anemia?
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is a disease containing sickle cells. when the abnormal cells go through blood vessels they clog the flow of blood and break apart causing lower red blood cell count, and organ damage, and pain.
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what is the primary structure of protein?
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the proteins sequence of amino acids.
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what does the peptide bond have to with the secondary structure of a protein?
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a peptide bond contains a particular negative hydrogen and oxygen.
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what type of bonding maintains the tertiary structure of a protein?
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bonding between R groups, such as disulfide linkages.
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list 3 components of a nucleotide.
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phosphate, 5 carbon sugar, nitrogen containing base.
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explain why complementary base pairing is important for nucleic acids?
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it's important when DNA replicates and also for producing RNA that are copies of genes.
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proteins whose polypeptide chains are folded into rounded compact shapes are:
-fibrous -pleated -helical -globular |
-globular
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when joined together by a dehydration reaction, the covalent bond between the carboxyl groups of 2 amino acids is called:
-peptide -carboxyl -hydrogen -hydroxyl |
-peptide
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the sugar in RNA is:
the sugar in DNA is: -deoxyribose -ribose -glucose -sucrose |
-RNA:ribose
-DNA:deoxyribose |
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what cells have a plasma membrane?
and what does it regulate? what's inside a plasma membrane? |
-all cells have an outer membrane.
-it regulates what enters and exits cells. -a semifluid substance that fills the cell, and also holds genetic info. |
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what is cytoplasm and what does it carry?
what does genetic material provide in a cell? |
-cytoplasm is a semifluid substance that fills the cell and it carries chemical reactions.
-genetic material provides information for growth and reproduction. |
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what are 2 main types of cells?
(they're divided according to genetic material organization) |
-prokaryotic cells: lack a membrane-bounded nucleus. Their DNA is located in a region of the cytoplasm called the nucleoid.
-eukaryotic: has a nucleus that houses DNA. |
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describe a prokaryotic cell and its function. list examples. where are they found?
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-they're smaller & more simple than eukaryotic cells. they contain a nucleoid,ribosomes, cytoplasm, plasma membrane, cell wall, capsule, fimbriae, sex pilus, & flagellum.
-their function: they cause diseases. they also help decompose dead remains and contribute to ecological cycles. they help humans make drugs, and food(the live cultures/bacteria in yogurt) -an ex. would be bacteria, E. coli, -they are around everywhere. in the air, in bodies of water, in the soil, on humans. |
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describe the plasma membrane
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every cell has a plasma membrane. it is a sheet that surrounds the cytoplasm, and regulates molecules that enter & exit the cell. in prokaryotes & eukaryotes this layer is phospholipid bilayer. there are proteins embedded in this layer that support diff. functions for the cell.
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an example of a prokaryotic cell would be bacteria.describe it's structure and its function.(refer to pg 51 in into. to bio)
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contains a cytoplasm surrounded by layers starting on the inside,1. plasma membrane, 2.cell wall(maintains the structure of the cell), 3. possible capsule(protective layer made up of polysaccharides). this cell contain enzymes that help speed up chemical reactions that help maintain an organism. the DNA is located in a single coiled chromosome that resides in the nucleoid. the little proteins(thousands) are synthesized on ribosomes located inside the cell floating in the cytoplasm. the appendages of bacteria are all made up of protein and include flagellum(propels the cell), fimbriae(helps adhesion onto anything), and sex pilus(used to transfer DNA to other cells).
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what is the major distinction between prokaryotic cell and a eukaryotic cell?
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prokaryotic cell contains a nucleoid but lacks a membrane-bounded nucleous. they are much smaller and more simple than eukaryotic cells.
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list and describe the functions of membrane proteins located in the phospholipid layer of the plasma membrane.
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-channel proteins: permit the passage of molecules into the cell.
*an ex: w/ out this ATP would never be produced. -transport proteins:also permit the passage of molecules by combining with a substance to help it move across the membrane. * an ex: w/ this transport protein, nerve conduction would b impos. -cell recognition proteins: these r glycoproteins. they contain little chains of sugar/carbs that help this protein function. this protein enables our bodies to recognize a pathogen invasion so that an immune reaction can occur. -receptor proteins: this protein binds w/ a specific molecule, allowing it to change its shape and perform a cellular response. *an ex: the liver stores glucose after it is signaled to do so by insulin. -enzymatic protein: these carry out metabolic reactions directly. * an ex: w/ out these a cell would never be able to perform the degradative and synthetic reactions that are important to its function. -junction proteins: assist cell to cell communication. |
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what contains eukaryotic cells?
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protists, fungi, plants & animals.
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describe a eukaryotic cell & its function. list examples.
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-they are divided into organelles, that differ in structure and function.
1.nucleus & ribosomes: the nucleus communicate w/ ribosomes in the cytoplasm. 2. organelles of endomembrane system: each organelles has its own specific set of enzymes & produces it's own product. 3. the energy related organelles: containing their own genetic material 4. the cytoskeleton: maintains the shape of the celln& assist in the movement of organelles. -some ex. would be protists, fungi, plants, & animals. |
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within cells, the synthesis of proteins occurs in?
-the nuclear envelope -ribosomes -chromatin -nucleolus |
-ribosomes
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what is the main function of the mitochondria?
-assembling polypeptide chains -digesting substances -producing ATP -moving internal structures |
-producing ATP
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the ___ keep(s) the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells separate from the DNA.
-golgi bodu -ribosomes -chromosomes -nuclear envelope |
-nuclear envelope
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vesicles that participate in cell "apoptosis"--programmed cell death--are called?
-peroxisomes -lysosomes -ribosomes -vacuoles |
-lysosomes
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the ___ are sometimes called the "powerhouses" of the cell.
-ER -mitochondria -chloroplasts -nuclei |
-mitochondria
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the cell to cell junctions that allow cells to communicate are called ___ junctions.
-gap -adhesion -matrix -tight |
-gap
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list the components of the nucleus, and give a function for each.
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nucleus envelope-defines the nucleus.
nuclear pore-allows substances to move in and out of nucleus. nucleolus-formation of the ribosomal RNA. chromatin-becomes chromosomes and contains DNA. |
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where are ribosomes found in the cell, and what do they do?
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ribosomes are found attached to the ER(endoplasmic reticulum) and in the cytoplasm(in single or in poly ribosomes) they carry out protein synthesis.
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contrast rough endoplasmic reticulum with smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
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Rough ER contains ribosomes that synthesize proteins and modifies them. Smooth ER doesn't contain ribosomes. it synthesizes lipids and performs other functions depending on where the cell is needed. They both send transport vessels to the golgi apparatus.
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describe the relationship between the components of the endomembrane system.
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transport vesicles from the ER proceeded to the golgi apparatus. the golgi apparatus modifies their contents and some of which are lysosomes(that digest molecules, an ex. cell death)
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compare and contrast the structure and functions of chloroplasts with those of mitochondria.
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-structure: the 2 main parts of a chloroplasts are the thylakoids and the stroma, the 2 main parts of a mitochondria are the cristae and the matrix.
-function:chloroplasts are lrgr and capture solar energy from the sun to build carbs. mitochondria break down carbs. to release energy for ATP production. |
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describe chloroplast
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-chloroplasts uses solar energy to synthesize carbs.
-it has a 3 membrane system. (inside 1st membrane-stroma, the stroma contains enzymes and thylakoids. pigments located in thylakoid membrane capture solar energy and store it inside and the enzymes that produces carbs.) -a stack of thylakoids is called a granum. |
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describe the mitochondria
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-mitochondria breaks down carbs. and produces adenosine triphospate(ATP)
-the mitochondria is a double membrane.(the outer membrane, then the inner membrane encloses the matrix. the matrix contains mitchondrial DNA and ribosomes. They are often called the power house of the cell bcus they produce most of the ATP the cell utilizes.) |
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list the components of the cytoskeleton
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microtubles, intermediate filaments, and actin filaments.
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explain the structure of cilia and flagella.
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cilia and flagella are both composed of microtubules arranged in a particular pattern and enclosed by the plasma membrane.
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give an example of a cell that has cilia and one that has flagella. describe the functions of these cells.
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cilia-lines the respiratory tract, the function is to sweep mucus and debris back up into the throat.
flagella-an ex. is sperm. the function is to allow them to swim. |
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there are 3 types of junctions between cells describe the functions for the following:
-adhesion junction -tight junction -gap junction |
-adhesion junction: are joined by intracellular filaments. the result is sturdy but flexible sheet of cells. These cells are found in the heart, stomach, bladder.
-tight junctions: they serve as barriers and are held together by tight junctions. the cells are found within the kidney tubules. -gap junction: allows cells to communicate. these are important to the heart muscle, and smooth muscle bcus they permit the flow of ions that is required for the cells to contract as a unit. |
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contrast a plants primary cell wall with its secondary cell wall.
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primary cell wall is capable of stretching during growth, and is composed of cellulose and other components. the 2ndary wall is formed in woody tissue and contains lignin in addition to cellulose. it adds rigidity and strength to a cell wall.
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describe the composition of the extracellular matrix of an animal cell.
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it is composed of polysaccharides and proteins; the bones the extracellular matrix is composed of mineral salts.
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describe the functions of gap junctions.
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they provide strength to adjacent cells but also allows molecules and ions to pass between them.
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contrast potential energy with kinetic energy.
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potential energy is stored energy; and kinetic energy is energy of motion.
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explain how the second energy law is related to entropy.
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one way to express the second energy law is to say that every energy transformation increases disorder. entropy is the tendency toward disorder.
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what does ATP do for living organism?
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it carries nearly all activities including synthesizing proteins, transporting ions across the plasma membrane, and causing organelles and cilia to move.
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explain why ATP is a good short-term energy storage molecule.
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ATP holds energy but easily gives it up because the last phosphate group is easily lost, increasing energy.
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briefly explain the function of ATP in coupled reactions.
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ATP can donate a phosphate to energize a compound for a reaction. Alternatively, it causes a molecule to change it's shape.
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explain why reactions in a cell are usually part of a metabolic pathway.
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each reaction produces a product that can be used for another reaction. therefor, each reaction can lead to others, and energy is used in small increments.
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explain how an enzyme facilitates a reaction.
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the active site of the enzyme undergoes a slight change in shape, allowing it to fit together with the substrate. that change in shape allows the reactions to occur with a lower energy of activation.
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in a/an ___ reaction, one reaction releases energy and the second uses energy.
-paired -energetic -coupled -diverted |
-coupled
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which of the following is not a feature of enzymes?
-they drive reactions only in a forward direction -they can bind to many substrates -metabolic reactions destroy the enzyme molecules. -they speed up reaction time |
-metabolic reactions destroy the enzyme molecules
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the term entrophy refers to
-the absorption of heat -the relative amount of disorganization in a system -an open system -the first law of thermodynamics |
-the relative amount of disorganization in a system.
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the term phagocytosis refers to a type of:
-vesicle -exocytosis -endocytosis -passive transport |
-endocytosis
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___ energy is the ability or capacity to do work.
-kinetic -chemical -thermal -potential |
-potential
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list 3 ways substances can enter the cell.
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-passive transport:no energy required because of simple diffusion.
-active transport:requires energy;moves substance against a concentration. -bulk transport:requires energy;is independent of concentration gradients. |
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define:
-isotonic solution -hypotonic solution -hypertonic solution |
-when cells neither gain, nor lose water.
-when cells gain water. -when cells lose water. |
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compare and contrast simple diffusion with facilitated diffusion.
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both types of diffusion move molecules from high to low concentration. simple diffusion does not require a membrane or transport proteins, while facilitated diffusion does.
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describe the relationship between a solute , a solvent, and a solution.
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a solution is composed of a solute dissolved in a solvent.
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compare and contrast exocytosis and endocytosis.
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both use vesicles to transport materials across the plasma membrane. molecules are transported out by exocytosis and in by endocytosis.
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describe the process of photosynthesis in plants.
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-the raw materials for photosynthesis are water and carbon dioxide, it occurs on the green portions of the plant, mainly the leaves.
-the roots absorb the water, which then moves up the stem to a leaf which then exist into the leaf by leaf veins. -the leaf contains mesophyll tissue in which cells carry on photosynthesis. -carbon dioxide in the air enters a leaf through small openings called stomata. -carbon dioxide and water diffuse into mesophyll cells and then into chloroplasts, the organelles that carry on photosynthesis. -chlorophyll and other pigments located in the chloroplasts absorb solar energy that drives photosynthesis. -the oxygen released by photosynthesis is the by product of water oxidizing. |
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there are 2 sets of reactions during photosynthesis, what are they?
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-light reaction(photo:light) event occurs in the thylakoid membrane.
(chlorophyll w/in the thylakoid membranes absorbs solar energy & energizes electrons. ATP is produced from ADP+P w/ the help of an electron transport chain. NADP+1, an enzyme helper, accepts electrons and becomes NADPH. -calvin cycle reaction (synthesis: reactions that produce carbohydrate) event occurs in the stroma. (CO2 is taken up by 1 of the substrates in the cycle. ATP and NADPH from the light reactions reduce CO2 to carbohydrate. |
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list 3 major groups of photosynthetic organisms.
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plants, algea, and cyanobacteria.
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what molecules are required in order for photosynthesis to begin, and what molecule is the most significant end product?
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during photosynthesis, carbon dioxide and water become a carbohydrate.
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contrast green leafs and yellow leafs.
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-green leaves: warm weather; more daylight hours. much more chlorophyll is produced. leaf absorbs all colors of light except green.
-yellow leaves: cool weather; fewer day light hours. little chlorophyll is produced. leaf absorbs all colors but yellow to orange. *during the fall chlorophyll breaks down, and the carotenoids that remain cause leaves to appear yellow to orange because they do not absorb these colors. |
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what 2 molecules are produced as a result of the electron pathway of the light reactions? PG 89 in "Intro to bio."
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ATP and NADPH
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what are the 3 major steps to the calvin cycle reaction.(produces glucose) pg 90 in "into to bio."
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CO2 fixation, CO2 reduction, and regeneration of RuBP
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where does calvin cycle get the NADPH and the ATP it uses to reduce carbon dioxide to a carbohydrate?
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from the light reactions.(the other reaction of photosynthesis)
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list the products that a plant cell can make from G3P, the product of the calvin cycle.
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glucose, sucrose, starch, cellulose, fatty acids, glycerol, and amino acids.
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in what part of a chloroplast do the light reactions occur? in what part do the calvin cycle reactions occur?
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the light reaction soccur in the thylakoid membrane, and the calvin cycle reactions occur in the stroma.
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does the climate effect the shape of plant leaves? why/why not?
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the climate does effect the shape of leaves. leaves that are small, and narrow(needles) are found in cold, windy climates of the north, while flat large leaves are found in warm, wet climates of the south.
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name some plants that use a method of photosynthesis other than C3 photosynthesis. PG 92/93 in Intro. to bio."
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C4 plants include many grasses, sugar cane, and corn; CAM plants include cactuses, stonecrops, orchids, and bromeliads.
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explain why C4 photosynthesis us advantageous in hot, dry conditions.
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stomata close under hot, dry conditions, increasing the concentration of oxygen relative to carbon dioxide in the leaf. the spatial separation of carbon dioxide and the calvin cycle reaction in C4 plants prevent oxygen from competing with carbon dioxide for an active site on the enzyme rubisco.
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why is breathing necessary to cellular respiration?
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breathing takes in oxygen needed for cellular respiration and rids the body of carbon dioxide, waste products of cellular respiration.
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explain why glucose is broken down slowly, rather than quickly, during cellular respiration?
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slow breakdown allows much of the released energy to be captured and utilized by the cell.
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list the four phases of complete glucose breakdown.
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-glycosis:occurs in the cytoplasm outside the mitochondria. oxidation results in NADH, and enough stored energy to gian 2 ATP.
-preparatory reaction:occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria. oxidation of pyruvate results in NADH and also CO2. - citric acid cycle: takes place in the matrix. NADH and FADH2 result and more CO2 is released, 2 ATP produced. -electron transport chain: occurs in the cristae in the motochondria. energy is captured and used for production of ATP. oxygen is collected here, and water is released. |
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whats the end product of glycolysis?
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metabolic pathway begins with glucose and ends with pyruvate. a net gain of 2 ATP.
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contrast the energy investment steps of glycosis with energy harvesting steps.
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during the energy investment steps, ATP provides the phosphate groups to activate substrates. during the energy harvesting steps, NADH and ATP are produced.
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what happens to pyruvate when oxygen is available in a cell?
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pyruvate enters the mitochondria for future breakdown.
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a C2 acetyl group enters the citric acid cycle. where does is come from?
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the C2 acetyl group comes from prep reaction.
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what are the products of the citric acid cycle as a result of further breakdown of glucose?
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2 CO2, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 ATP per turn.
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explain how the electron transport chain results in the synthesis of ATP.
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as electrons move from one carrier to another in the cristae, energy is released, and this energy is used to pump hydrogen ions in from the matrix to the intermembrane space. the flow of hydrogen ions back down the concentration gradient into the matrix drives the synthesis of ATP by ATP.
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what are the draw backs and benefits of fermentation?
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drawbacks: most of the energy in a glucose molecule is unused and results in a toxis end product. benefits: the 2 ATP gained can be used as a burst of energy when oxygen is not available for complete glucose breakdown.
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during what stage of the cell cycle does DNA replicate? what does the chromosome look like following DNA replication?
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there are four stages.(G1,G0(permanently arrested:nerve cells), S, G2, M) DNA replicates during the S stage. S standing for synthesis. following replication, the chromosomes are composed of 2 sister chromatids held together at a centromere.
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what happens during the M stage of the cell cycle?
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mitosis(nuclear division in which the chromosome number stays constant) and cytokinesis( division of the cytoplasm) occur.
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during what phase of mitosis are duplicated chromosomes aligned at the spindle equator? pg 117 in "into. to bio"
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during the metaphase.
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during what phase of mitosis are daughter chromosomes moving toward the spindle poles?
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during anaphase.
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what explanation can you give for the difference in cytokinesis between plant and animal cells?
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the rigid cell wal of plants cells does not permit cytokinesis by furrowing as in animal cells.
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explain the significance of checkpoints in the cell cycle.
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it is important for each step of the cycle to be completed correctly before that next one begins. checkpoints allow the cell to make sure that happens.
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what is a signal, and in general what two kinds of signals control the cell cycle?
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a signal is a molecule the promotes or inhibits an event. there are 2 signals; internal and external that control the cell cycle.
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define carcinoma
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is cancer of the epithelial tissue that lines organs
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define sarcoma
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is cancer arising in the muscle of connective tissue(esp. bone cartilage)
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define leukemia
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are cancers of the blood
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list a few characteristics of cancer cells
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the def. of cancer is a disease of the cell cycle, in that the cell cycle is outta control., and cellular reproduction occurs repeatedly w/out an end. having a rate of cell division increases the chances of a mutation. they are immortal in less mankind interferes to kill cancerous cells because apoptosis(programmed cell death) fails making cancerous cell immortal.
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describe how cancer relates to the cell cycle.
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cancer occurs when the cell cycle is not regulated properly.
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list the characteristic features of cancer cells.
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non-differentiated cells; abnormal nuclei; tumor formation; promote angioenesis(from cell enzyme to feed it oxygen and nutrients); and undergo metastasis.
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contrast the modes of action of radiation and chemotherapy with the mode of action of hormonal therapy.
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radiation and chemotherapy damage DNA or otherwise interfere with the completion of mitosis. hormonal therapy interferes with cell;s reception of an external signal to divide.
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list the major protective strategies you can employ to reduce your risk of cancer.
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avoid tobacco use, reduce sun exposure, reduce radon exposure, avoid heavy drinking, avoid obesity. consume foods rich in vitamin c and a. avoid chemically processed foods, and preservatives. eat vegetables and fruits which contain antioxidants.
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in the electron pathway for light reactions in photosynthesis, PS II involves:
-splitting water -the production of NADPH -producing enzymes -the production of ATP |
-splitting water
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