Cognitive Psychology Chapter 4

Front 1

Working Memory

Back 1

The brief immediate memory for the limited amount of material that you are currently processing part of working memory also actively coordinates your ongoing mental activities.

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Short Term Memory

Back 2

Same as working.

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Long Term Memory

Back 3

Has a large capacity and contains your memory for experiences and information that have accumulated thoughtout your life.

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Chunk

Back 4

A memory unit that consists of several components that are strongly associated with one another.

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Brown/Peterson & Patterson Technique

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Presented some items that students were instructed to remember, then the students performed a distracting task. They were asked to recall the original items.

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Rehersal

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Repeating the items silently.

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Serial-Position Effect

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Refers to the U-Shaped relationship between a word's postion in a list and it's chance of recall.

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Recency Effect

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With better recall of items at the end of the list.

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Primary Effect

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Enhanced recall for items at the beginning of the list.

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Semantics

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Meaning of words and sentences.

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Proactive Interference (PI)

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Means that people have trouble learning new material because previously learned material keeps getting in the way.

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Release from Proactive Interference

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Your performance on that new category of items will almost be as high as it has been on the first item.

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Control Processes

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Are intentional stategies that people may use to improve their memory. EX Rehersal

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Working Memory Approach

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Proposed by Baddely, our immediate memory is a multipart system that temporality holds and manipulates information while we perform cognitive tasks.

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Phonological Loop

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Can process a limited number of sounds for a short period of time.

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Subvocalization

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When you silently pronounce that you are reading.

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Acoustic Confusions

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People are likely to confuse simuilar sounding stimuli.

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Self-Instruction

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When you silently remind yourself about something you need to do in the future or how to use complicated equipment.

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Transcranial Magentic Stimulation

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AKA (TMS) A neuroscience technique that uses a magnetic field to briefly stimulate a specific location on the cortex.

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Visuospatial Sketchpad

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The second component of Baddely's model of working memory. This processes both visusal and spartial information.

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Central Executive

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Integrates information from the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, the episodic buffer, and long term memory.

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Episodic Buffer

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Serves as a temporary storehouse that can hold and combine information from your phonological loop, and long term memory.

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ADHD

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People with this have more difficulty than others on central executive tasks.

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Major Depression

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Feeling sad, down, hopeless, tired.

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Ruminative Style

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Worrying about everything that is wrong is their life.

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Episodic Memory

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Focuses on your memories for events that happened to you personally.

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Semantic Memory

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Describes your organized knowledge about the world, including your knowledge about words and other factual information.

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Procedural Memory

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Refers to your knowledge about how to do something.

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Encoding

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You process information and represent it in your memory.

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Retrivial

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You locate information in storage and you access the information.

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Levels of Processing Approach

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Argues that deep meaningful processing of information leads to more accurate recall than shallow sensory kinds of processing.

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Distinctiveness

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Means that a stimulus is different from other memory traces.

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Elaboration

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Operates deep levels of processing.

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Self Reference Effect

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You will remember more information if you try to relate the information to yourself.

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Meta Analysis

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Which is a statistical method for synthesizing numerous studies on a single topic.

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Encoding Specificity Principle

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Which states that recall is better if the context during retrival is similar to the context during encoding.

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Recall Task

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The participants must reproduce the items they learned earlier.

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Recognition Task

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The participants must judge whether they saw a particular item at an earlier time.

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Emotion

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A reaction to a specific stimulus.

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Mood

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Refers to a more general long lasting experience.

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Pollyana Priniple

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States that pleasant items are usually processed more efficiently and more accurately than less pleasant items are usually processed more efficiently and more accurately than less pleasant items.

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Positivity Effect

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People tend to rate unpleasant past events more positively with the passage of time.

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Mood Congruence

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Means that you recall material more accurately if it is congruent with your current mood.

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Explicit Memory Task

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A researcher directly asks you to remember some information; you realize that your memory is being tested, and the test requires you to intentionally retrieve some information that you previously learned.

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Implicit Memory Task

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You see the material during the test phase, you are instructed to complete cognitive tasks that does not directly ask you for either recall or recognition.

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Repetition priming Task

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Recent Exposure to a word increased likelihood that you will think of this particular word, when you are given a cue that could evoke many different words.

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Dissociation

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Occurs when a variable has large effects on Test A but little or no effects on Test B.

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Generalized Anxiety Disorder

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In which a person experiences at least 6 months of intense long lasting anxiety and worry.

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PTSD

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In which a person keeps re experiencing a very traumatic event.

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Social Phobia

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In which a person becomes very anxious in social situations.

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Amnesia

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Have severe deficits in their episodic memory.

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Retrograde Amnesia

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Loss of memory for events that occurred prior to brain damage.

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Anterograde Amnesia

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The loss or the ability to form memories for events that have occured after brain damage.

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Hippocampus

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A structure underneath the cortex that is important in many learning and memory tasks.

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Expertise

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Demonstrate impressive memory abilities as well as consistently exceptional performance on representative tasks in a particular area.

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Own Ethnicity Bias

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You are generally accurate in identifying members in your own ethnic group than members in other ethnic group.

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Autobiographical Memory

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Is your memory for events and issues related to yourself.

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Ecological Validity

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If the conditions in which the research is conducted are similar to the natural setting to which the results will be applied.

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Schema

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Consists of your general knowledge or expectation which is distilled from your past experiences with someone or something.

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Consistency Bias

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We tend to exaggerate the consistency between our past feelings and beliefs and our current viewpoint.

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Source Montioring

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The process of trying to identify the origin of a particular memory.

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Reality Monitoring

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You try to identify whether an event really occured or whether you imaged this event.

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Flashbulb Memory

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Refers to your memory for the circumstances in which you first learned about a very surprising and emotionally arousing event.

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Post Event Misinformation Effect

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People first view an event, when they are given misleading information about the event; later on they mistakenly recall the misleading information, rather than the event they actually saw.

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Proactive Interferance

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Which means that people have trouble recalling new material because of previously learned old material keeps interfering with new memories.

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Retroactive Interference

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People have trouble recalling old material because some recently learned new material keeps interfering with old memories.

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Constructivist Approach

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To memory emphasize that we construct knowledge by intergrating what we know. As a result our understanding of an event or a topic is coherent and it makes sense.

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Recovered Memory Perspective

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Some indivduals who experienced sexual abuse during childhood managed to forget that memory for many years.

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False Memory Perspective

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Proposes that most of these recovered memories are actually incorrect memories in other words they are constructed stories about events that never occured.

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Betrayal Trauma

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To describe how a child may respond adaptively when a trusted parent or caretaker betrays them by sexual trauma.

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Memory Strategy

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You perform mental activies that can help to improve your encoding and retrieval.

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Levels of Processing

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Shows that you will generally recall information more accurately.

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Elaboration

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You will concentrate on the specific meaning of a particular concept; you will also try to relate this concept to your prior knowledge and interconnected concepts that you already measured.

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Rehersal

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Repeating the information you want to learn you will be wasting your time.

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Distinctiveness

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Which means that one memory trace should be different from all other memory traces.

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Self Reference Effect

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In which you enhance long term memory by relating the material to your own experiences.

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Foresight Bias

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Occurs when people have been studying for a future exam and they are over confident.

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Encoding Specificity Principle

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Which states that recall is often better if the context as the time of encoding matches the context at the time when your retrieval will be tested.

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Total Time Hypothesis

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The amount that you learn depends on the total time you devote to learning.

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Retrival Time Hypothesis

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You try to recall important concepts from memory, if retrieval is difficult and you succeed your learning is enhanced.

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Spaced Learning

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Spread your material out over time.

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Massed Learning

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Craming the material.

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Desirable Difficulties

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A learning situation that is somewhat challenging but not too difficult.

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Testing Effect

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Taking a test is actually an excellent way to boost your long term recall for academic material.

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Mnemonics

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Mental stragegies that are designed to improve your memory.

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Mental Imagery

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Mentally represented objects, actions, or ideas, that are not physically present.

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Keyword Method

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You identify an English word that sounds similar to a new word you want to learn, then you create an image that links the keyword with the meaning of the new word.

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Organization

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Bring systematic order to the material they want to learn.

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Chunking

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Several small units into larger units.

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Hierachy

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Is a system in which items are arranged in a series of classes, from the most general classes to the most specific.

Front 91

First Letter Technique

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You take the first letter of each word you want to remember and then you compose a word for a sentence from those letters.

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Narrative Technique

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Instructs people to make up stories that link a series of words together.

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Retrospective Memory

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Remembering information that you acquired in the past.

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Prospective Memory

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Remembering that you need to do somehting in the future.

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External Memory Aid

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Defined as any device, external to yourself that facilitates your memory in some way.

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Metacognition

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Refers to your knowledge and control of your cognitive processes.

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Self Knowledge

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Of what people believe about themselves.

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Metamemory

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Refers to your knowledge and control of your cognitive processes.

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Calibration

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Measures people's accuracy in estimating their actual performance.

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Tip of the Tongue

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Describes your subjective experiences of knowing the target word for which you are searching, yet you cannot recall it right now.

Front 101

Feeling of Knowing Effect

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Describes the subjective experience of knowing some information, but you cannot recall in right now.

Front 102

Tip of the Finger Effect

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Which refers to the subjective experience of knowing the target sign, but that sign is temporarily inaccessible.

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Embodies Cognition

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A perspective that emphasizes how our abstract thoughts are often expressed by our motor behavior.

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Metacomprehension

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Refers to your thoughts about language comprehension.

Front 105

Define the primacy effect and the recency effect. Which is related to short term, which to long term?

Back 105

Primacy effect is remembering things at the beginning of the list, while recency is that the end. Primacy is in the long term, receny in the short.

Front 106

Describe a situation or task you have performed in the last week that required all four components for your working memory system.

Back 106

A situation that I have experienced this week that incorporated all four of my memory system components was

Front 107

Suppose you have just been introduced to five students from another college. Using information you know about phonological and/or sematic similarity, give one reason why would it be difficult to remember their names immediately after they have been introduced. Also give two ways which you could increase your ability to remember their names.

Back 107

It would be hard at first to remember their names because it can only process a limited number of sounds for a short period of time. Processes language and other sounds. Also it is difficult because od acoustic confusion things sounding the same. One way you can help to remember is doing a narrative technique where you come up with a silly story or way to remember the names. Another way you can help is to keep repeating the names in your head or in the conversation end or start with the name,

Front 108

The In depth section of the long term memory chapter examined how emotions and mood can influence your long term memory. Explain how these two factors can be relevant in your everyday life.

Back 108

Emotions and mood can really influence your long term memory. It is known that if you are experiencing a certain mood during studying if you have the same mood during the test you will actually do better this is called mood congruence. Also emotion works the same way if you are emotionally connected to something you are more likely to remember it. An example this can be relevant in my everyday life is that I try to be positive while studying, because I know if I am also positive during a test it will help my memory, and help me remain calm/

Front 109

Give an example of your own autobiographical memories. Then describe how a schema could lead to memory distortion when recalling or reminiscing about the memory. Discuss whether there is a proactive or retroactive interference taking place.

Back 109

An example of my own autobiographical memories is remembering something that I normally do everyday. Like I remember where I sit in class, my route to school, my passwords for my accounts. A schema can lead to memory distortion because it can cause a consistency bias which is when your own beliefs can affect what you think are memories. This would be retrograde

Front 110

Define dissociation. How is it relevant in the research in the research that has been conducted with amnesiacs? Describe and discuss one example from the text or in class.

Back 110

Dissociation is when a variable has large effects on test A but little or none on test b. A dissociation also occurs when a variable has one kind of effect if measured by test a and the opposite of test b. This is relevant to research with amnesiacs because

Front 111

Define distributed practice and massed practice. Which is better for long term.

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Distributed practice happens over time while massed is all at once. It is better for your long term memory to use distributed practice instead of massed.

Front 112

Choose one mnemonic strategy presented in lecture or the text. Name and define it, and describe one example of it and how it can be used to help memory.

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One mnemonic strategy is self reference effect. This is when you relate things to your own experiences. It helps me with my memory almost all the time when I learn things in a class I try to relate them to me or someone close to me as best as I can then I remember information better.

Front 113

Define metacognition. Describe an example where you have successfully applied metacognition to help you study or learn material more successfully. What other strategies or techniques could you use to continue improving?

Back 113

Metacognition refers to your knowledge and control of cognition processes. An example where I have applied this is becoming aware during a class that I am not storing any information because I am not concentrating. IF this happens I am using metacognition, and realizing I need to start using new ways to help learn and pay attention. Another strategy I could use is self reference.

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Factual vs Conceptual Information

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One understands facts other understands the big concept of something

Front 115

Two ways someone can improve their metacomprehension?

Back 115

It can be improved though self knowledge and metamemory.

Front 116

Describe how you can be overconfident in memory.

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You can be overconfident when you have bias and shemas because you can think you really know something but it really isn't real. Also there can be source amnesias.

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Consolidation

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is a category of processes that stabilize a memory trace after its initial acquisition

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What factors can lead to false or distorted memories. Name 3.

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They can be implanted, you could start to question your own memories during questions,

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Role of a schema

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Schema is knowing events or how something is suppose to go.

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Critical Lure

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the tendency to recall words associated with presented information

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Warrington & Weiskrantz

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They presented a list of English words to individuals with anterograde amnesia. Then they administered several recall tests compared to control group participants the individuals with amnesia did a lot worse.

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Stem Completion

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an indirect measure of memory. For example, it is a task where a person is given a word stem such as tri then the person is asked to complete the first word that comes to mind

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Priming

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is an implicit memory effect in which exposure to one stimulus influences a response to another stimulus. The seminal experiments of Meyer and Schvaneveldt in the early 1970's led to the flowering of research on priming of many sorts.

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Lexical Decision task

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is a procedure used in many psychology and psycholinguistics experiments. The basic procedure involves measuring how quickly people classify stimuli as words or nonwords.

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Source Confusion

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is an attribute seen in different people's accounts of the same event after hearing people speak about the situation

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Logie Zucco and Baddely

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Studied working memory approach.

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Attention

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The focusing of mental effort on selectedaspects of the environment or certain thoughts ormental activities and the blocking out of others.