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47 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
  • 3rd side (hint)
encoding
the process of inquiring info and storing it in LTM
retrieval
the process of transferring info from LTM to working memory
rehearsal
repeating info over and over
maintenance rehearsal
rehearsing without considering its meaning or making connection with other info
helps maintain info in the STM/WM but is not an effective way of transferring info to the LTM
elaborative rehearsal
think about he meaning of the item as you rehearse it
more effective at transferring info into LTM
Levels of processing theory (LOP)
memory depends on how info is encoded with deeper processing resulting in better encoding and retrieval than shallow processing
memory depends on how info is programmed into the mind
depth of processing
memory for words is better when the words are processed by relating them to other knowledge
distinguish between shallow and deep processing
shallow processing
involves little attention to meaning, attention is focused on physical features such as whether the word is in lowercase or capital letters
occurs during maintenance rehearsal
deep processing
involves close attention, focusing on an items meaning and relating it to something else
experiment that demonstrates the varying of depth processing
procedure: a question was presented, followed by a word and then the participant responded. shallow processing was achieved by asking questions about the words physical characteristics; deeper processing by asking about the words sound; deepest processing by a task that involved the words meaning.Then they were given a memory test to see how well they recalled the words.
results: best memory for deepest processing, good for deep processing and worst for shallow processing
circular reasoning
once we have determined the desert island task will result in better memory we can predict that from this that memory will be better from the desert island task
this occurs because depth of processing has not been defined independently of memory performance. we cant use memory performance to determine depth f processing and then use depth of processing to predict memory performance
5 experiments that show how encoding effects retrieval (1)
1. present a simple and a complex sentence both with the same subject such as chicken. Memory was better or word in complex sentence because the complex structure creates more connections between the word to be remembered and other things which act as cues to help us retrieve the word.
(2) experiment that tests whether using visual imagery that connects words visually can create connections that enhance memory
they used paired associate learning in which a list of words were presented, later the first word of each pair was presented and the participant had to remember the word that was paired with it. one group was told to silently repeat the pairs as they were presented and the other told to form mental pictures of the words interacting
those who had formed the imagery remembered more pairs
(3) self reference effect and (experiment)
memory is better if you are asked to relate a word to yourself.
Participants were presented with a question for 3 seconds followed by a brief pause and then a word. The task was to answer the question yes or no after seeing the word "printed in small case?" happy, "yes". When their recall was tested they were more likely to remember words that they rated as describing themselves
(4) generation effect
generating material yourself, rather than passively receiving it, enhances learning and retention
this was demonstrated by having participants study a list of word pairs in two diff ways: red group king-crown; generate group, king-cr. then they were presented with the first word in each pair and asked to remember the second. they were able to produce 28 percent more of the generated words than the ones they just read
(5) organizing info, retrieval cue, experiment that shows what happens when words are presented in an organized way from the beginning, during encoding
a word or stimulus that helps a person remember info stored in LTM. remembering words in a particular category serves as a R.C.
presented material to be learned in an "organizational tree" which organized a number of words according to categories. One group studied four separate trees fro minerals, animals, clothing, and transportation for one minute each and then were asked to recall as many words as they could. They tended to organize by the trees. This group recalled an average of 73 words. Another group saw 4 trees, but the words were randomized, this group was only able to remember 21 words
chart on page 179
study this!
experiment that shows the benefit of testing as a method of encoding info to be remembered for a test (testing effect)
college students read prose passages for 7 minutes followed by a two minute break during which they solved math problems. Then one group took a 7 minute recall test in which they were asked to write down as much of it as they could remember. The other group was given 7 minutes to reread the material. Then after a period of 5 min, 2 days, or 1 week, participants were given the recall test which they wrote down what they remembered. There was little difference between groups after 5 min but the performance of the testing group dropped less than the other for the longer intervals. This is called the testing effect
all of these experiments show that there is a close relationship between retrieval and encoding
the operation of retrieval cues has been demonstrated in the lab using a technique called cues recall which is illustrated by what experiment?
free recall: a participant is asked to recall stimuli such as words that were previously presented by the experimenter or events experienced earlier in the participants life. cued recall: the participant is presented with retrieval cues to aid in recall of the previously experienced stimuli, these cues are typically words or phrases
there was an experiment where they presented participants with a list of words to remember. The words drawn from specific categories. Participants in free recall group were asked to write down as many words as they could, participants in cues recall group were also asked to recall the words but were provided with names of categories. The retrieval cue group recalled 75 % while the free recall only 40%
retrieval can be increased by matching the conditions at retrieval to the conditions at the existed encoding
location is a retrieval cue
what are the three specific situations in which retrieval is increased by matching conditions at retrieval to conditions at coding
(1) encoding specificity: matching the context in which encoding and retrieval occur
(2) state-dependent learning: matching the internal mood present
(3) transfer-appropriate processing: matching the task involved involved in encoding and retrieval
encoding specificity "diving" experiment example
a group of participants put on diving equipment and studied a list of words underwater and another studied the words on land. these groups were then divided so that half of each group recalled the words on land and half underwater.
the results show indicate that the best recall occurred when encoding and retrieval occurred in the same location. This suggests a good strategy for test taking would be to study in an environment similar to the environment in which you will be tested
This conclusion about studying (see card before) is supported by another experiment
participants read an article on psychopathology while wearing headphones. The participants in silent condition heard nothing in headphones while participants in noisy condition heard tape of background noise of a cafeteria. Half participants in each group were then given a shot answer test on the article under the silent condition and the other half under noisy condition.
the results indicate that they did better when the testing conditions matched the study conditions
experiment that demonstrates state-dependent learning
asked participants to think positive thoughts while listening to merry music and depressing thoughts while listeni9ng to melancholic music. Participants rated mood while listening to the music and began studying a list of words when their moods reached either very pleasant or very unpleasant. The participants returned 2 days later and the same procedure was used to put them back into the moods and then took recall tests. They did better when their moods matched their moods matched during retrieval matched their moods during encoding
experiment that shows transfer appropriate processing
pg 185
the results of this experiment indicate that deeper processing at encoding does not always result in better retrieval as LOP proposes and matching the encoding and retrieval tasks results in better retrieval
what are the 6 ways to increase effectiveness of studying
(1) elaborate (2) generate and test (30 organize (4) take breaks (5) match learning and testing conditions (6) avoid "illusions of learning"
spacing effect
having numerous short study sessions instead of one long one helps you remember things better
experience causes changes at synapse
learning and memory are represented in the brain by physiological changes that take place at the synapses
long-term potentiation (LTP)
enhanced firing of neurons after repeated stimulation
LTP is important because it shows that repeated stimulation causes not only structural changes but also enhanced responding
medial-temporal lobe (MTL)
consists of the perirhinal cortex, parahippocampal cortex, entorhinal cortex,a and the hippocampus (crucial for forming new LTM)
study that determined how the perirhinal cortex and the hippocampus responded as the names of objects were presented in the encoding part of a memory experiment (what happens during encoding affects the chances that memory will occur during retrieval
participants in brain scanner viewed a series of 200 words. They were instructed to create an image of a specific place that went with each word. (i.e, if word was dirty create image of garbage dump). 20 hours later they were presented with a recognition test in which they saw the same 200 words along with a new set of 200 words. During this part they were not on a brain scanner. Their task was to indicate which of the words they had seen before. They remembered 54 % of the old words. They then determined whether there was any difference between the brain activity that had been recorded in the scanner during encoding for remembered and forgotten words.
results: activity in the perirhinal cortex was greater fro the remembered words than for the forgotten words. Thus in the P.C. words that generated more activity during encoding were more likely to be familiar to participants. There was no difference in hippocampus.
parahippocampus
important for remembering spatial info
enthorhinal area
involved with recognition memory
remote memories
memory for events that happened long ago
graded amnesia
because memory for recent events is more fragile then for remote events retrograde amnesia is typically less severe for remote events
consolidation
the process that transforms new memories from a fragile state, in which they can be disrupted, to a more permanent state, in which they are resistant to disruption. This process involves a reorganization in the nervous system which occurs at two levels which are?
synaptic and systems consolidation
synaptic consolidation
occurs at synapses and happens rapidly, over a period of minutes
systems consolidation
involves the gradual reorganization of circuits within brain regions and takes place on longer time scale lasting weeks, months, or even years
H.M. and consolidation
indicates the importance of the hippocampus in consolidation
standard model of consolidation
proposes that memory retrieval depends on the hippocampus during consolidation, but once consolidation is complete, retrieval no longer depends on the hippocampus
steps in the standard consolidation model
incoming info activates a number of areas in the cortex. Activation is distributed across the cortex because memories typically involve many sensory and cognitive areas. To deal with this distribution the cortex communicates with the hippocampus and the hippocampus coordinates the activity of the different cortical areas which are not yet connected in the cortex
reactivation
a major mechanism of consolidation; a process during which the hippocampus replays the neural the neural activity associated with memory. During reactivation, activity occurs in the network connecting the hippocampus and the cortex. This results in the formation of connections between the cortical areas. This occurs during sleep, relaxed wakefulness, and be enhanced by conscious rehearsing of a memory. The hippocampus becomes less active as memories are consolidated until only cortical activity is necessary to retrieve remote memories.
multiple trace hypothesis
the hippocampus is involved in retrieval of remote memories, esp episodic memories. Evidence for this idea comes from experiments like the one by Gilboa (2004) who elicited recent and remote episodic memories by showing participants photographs of themselves engaging in various activities that were taken at times ranging from very recently to when they were 5 years old. The results show that the hippocampus was activated during retrieval of both recent and remote memories
re-consolidation experiment on page 195
study this!
reconsolidation
occurs after a memory has been consolidated after a memory is reactivated and happens more rapidly
reinforces and updates memories
reconsolidation experiment
participants learned a list of words on day 1. On day 2, the no-reminder group learned a new list of words. The reminder group also learned a new list but were asked to remember their day 1 training session, thus reminding them of their learning. On day 3 they were asked to remember the words from list 1.
results: the no reminder group remembered 45 % of the words from list 1 and mistakenly remembered 5 % from list 2. The reminder group recalled 24% from list one and mistakenly recalled 24% from list 2. The reminder activated memory for list 1 and opened the door fro changes to occur in the participants memory for that list.
what is one practical outcome of the reconsolidation research?
possible treatment for pot traumatic stress disorder, reactivation of a memory followed by reconsolidation can help alleviate flashback symptoms and anxiety.