Cognitive Psychology Chapter 13

Front 1

reasoning

Back 1

the process of drawing conclusions and the cognitive processes by which ppl start with information and come to conclusions that go beyond that info

Front 2

deductive reasoning

Back 2

reasoning that involves syllogisms in which a conclusion logically follows from premises

Front 3

syllogism

Back 3

a series of three statements: two premises followed by a conclusion. The conclusion can follow from the premises based on the rules of logic

Front 4

premises

Back 4

the first two statements in a syllogism

Front 5

conclusion

Back 5

the final statement in a syllogism

Front 6

categorical syllogisms

Back 6

a syllogism in which the premises and conclusion describe the relationship between two categories by using statements that begin with all, no, or some

Hint 6

premise 1: all birds are animals
premise 2: all animals eat food
conclusion: therefore, all birds eat food

Front 7

inductive reasoning

Back 7

reasoning in which a conclusion follows from a consideration of evidence. This conclusion is stated as being probably true, rather than definitively true, as can be he case for the conclusions from deductive reasoning

Front 8

validity

Back 8

quality of a syllogism whose conclusion follows logically from its premises

Front 9

Conditional Syllogisms

Back 9

have two premisses and a conclusion
premise 1 has the form "if...then..."

Hint 9

If I lend Steve 20 bucks, then I wont get it back. I lent Steve 20 bucks. Therefore, I wont get my 20 bucks back.

Front 10

Antecedent

Back 10

In a conditional syllogism, the term p in the conditional premise "if p, then q."

Front 11

consequent

Back 11

in a conditional syllogism, the term q in the conditional premise "if p, then q."

Front 12

Page 363

Back 12

study this chart

Front 13

affirming the antecedence

Back 13

a conditional syllogism of the following form; if p, then q; p; therefore, q. the antecedent, p, is affirmed in the second premise. this is a valid form of conditional syllogism

Front 14

denying the consequent

Back 14

a conditional syllogism of the following form; if p, then q; not q; therefore not p. the consequence, q, is denied in the second premise.

Front 15

denying the antecedent

Back 15

a conditional syllogism of the following form; if p, then q; not p; therefore not q. this is an invalid form of conditional syllogism.

Hint 15

if its robin then its a bird
its not a robin
therefore its a not a bird.

Front 16

wason four card problem

Back 16

a conditional reasoning task that involves four cards. various versions of this problem have been used to study the mechanisms that determine the outcomes of conditional reasoning tasks

Front 17

falsification principle

Back 17

the reasoning principle that to test a rule, it is necessary to look for situations that would falsify the rule.

Front 18

pragmatic reasoning schema

Back 18

is a way of thinking about cause and effect in he world that is learned as a part of experiencing everyday life

Hint 18

an example is the permission schema that states is a person satisfies condition A then he or she gets to carry out action B.

example: 'if your are 21 then you get to drink beer"

Front 19

evolutionary perspective on cognition

Back 19

an argument that we can trace many properties of our minds to the evolutionary principles of natural selection

Front 20

social exchange theory

Back 20

states that an important aspect of human behavior is the ability for two people to cooperate in a way that is beneficial to both people.

Front 21

inductive reasoning examples

Back 21

observation: all the crows in cocoa beach i have seen are black, all the crows Ive seen in seattle are black too.
conclusion: i can assume all crows are black

Hint 21

we do not consider validity we decide how strong an argument is. strong arguments result in conclusions that are more likely to be true

Front 22

what factors contribute to the strength of an inductive argument

Back 22

1. how well do the observations about a particular category represent all members of that category?
2. number of observations
3. quality of evidence

Hint 22

any time we make a prediction on what will happen based on what has happened in the past

Front 23

availability heuristic

Back 23

events that are more easily remembered are judged as being more probable than events that are less easily remembered

Hint 23

Ex: which words are more prevalent in English? Words that begin with the letter r or words in which r is the third letter
70% responded words begin with r when actuality 3 times more have r as third letter

Front 24

experiment that demonstrates availability heuristic

Back 24

procedure: in the famous men condition 12 names were famous men and 14 names were non-famous women. In the famous women condition 12 names were famous women and 14 non-famous men. Task was to estimate whether more women or more men listed in the list they heard.

Hint 24

77% in famous men condition said there were more men and 81% of famous women condition said there were more women

Front 25

illusory correlations

Back 25

occurs when a correlation between two events appears to exist, but in reality there is no correlation or it is much weaker than assumed to be

Hint 25

this may take the form of a stereotype

Front 26

stereotype

Back 26

an oversimplified generalization about a group of class of ppl that often focuses on the negative

Hint 26

selective attention to stereotypical bxs makes them more readily available

Front 27

representativeness heuristic

Back 27

the probability that A is a member of class B can be determined by how well the properties of A resembles the properties we usually associate with class B

Hint 27

more ppl thought a description of a man who wears glasses, is quiet, and reads a lot was a librarian rather than a farmer

Front 28

base rate

Back 28

the relative proportion of different classes in the population

Hint 28

more farmers than librarians so it is more likely he is a farmer than a librarian

Front 29

conjunction rule

Back 29

states that the probability of a conjunction of two events (A and B) cannot be higher than the probability of the single constituents (A or B)

Hint 29

asked participants if Linda is just a bank teller or a bank teller and a feminist after giving a description of Linda being involved in social justice. However there are more bank tellers than feminist bank tellers so there cannot be a higher chance she is feminist ( but ppl think so because of heuristic)

Front 30

law of large numbers

Back 30

states that the larger the number of individuals that are randomly drawn from a population, the more representative the resulting group will be of the entire population

Hint 30

small hospital, 15 babies
large hospital, 45 babies
which records more days where more then 60% babies are boys?
smaller because of this law

Front 31

confirmation bias

Back 31

our tendency to selectively look for info that conforms to our hypothesis and to overlook info that argues against it

Hint 31

2, 4, 6 rule is 3 numbers that are increasing in magnitude but ppl thought rule was increasing intervals of 2. to solve problem had to create sequences that dis confirm their current hypothesis

Front 32

experiment that tests how ppls attitudes are affected by exposure to evidence that contradicts that attitude

Back 32

procedure: one group was against capital punishment and the other for it, they were presented with studies; some saying that capital punishment deterred murder and same saying the opposite. They only focused on info that agreed with their beliefs

Front 33

expected utility theory

Back 33

the idea that ppl are basically rational, so that if they have all of the relevant info, they will make a decision that results in the maximum expected utility

Hint 33

ppl don't always follow this I.E. gambling

Front 34

utility

Back 34

outcomes that achieve a person's goals (i.e., money)

Front 35

experiment that demonstrates when ppl do not follow utility theory

Back 35

participants received a dollar every time they drew a red jelly bean from a bowl consisting of red and white jelly beans. When given the choice between a bowl that had 1 red and 9 white (10% chance) or a bowl that had 7 red and 93 white (7% chance) they chose the larger bowl with less probability

Front 36

expected emotions

Back 36

emotions that ppl predict that they will feel for a particular outcome

Hint 36

involves probable emotion but no feeling of actual emotions
can be part of utility approach because good outcome equals positive emotion and bad outcome equals negative emotion

Front 37

immediate emotions

Back 37

emotions that are experienced at the time a decision is being made

Front 38

integral immediate emotions

Back 38

emotions that are associated with the act of making a decision

Hint 38

trying to make a decision on Deal or No Deal

Front 39

incidental immediate emotions

Back 39

emotions that are unrelated to the decision

Hint 39

can be caused by natural disposition, something that happened earlier in the day, or reacting to general environment

Front 40

risk aversion

Back 40

the tendency to avoid taking risks

Hint 40

expected emotions are one of the determinants of risk aversion

Front 41

experiment that compared ppl's expected emotions with their actual emotions

Back 41

gave participants $5 and told them based on a coin flip they would either win $5 more or lose $3. The participants rated their happiness before and predicted their happiness level if they won or lost. Most predicted that the negative effects of losing would be greater than the positive effects of winning. After they took a survey on their happiness.

Hint 41

results: the positive effect of winning was only a little less than predicted. the actual effects of losing was a lot less than predicted. the effects were about equal. The inability to predict emotional outcome of a decision can lead to inefficient decision making.

Front 42

experiment that shows how incidental emotions affect decision making

Back 42

participants viewed one of three film clips (1) a person dying (sadness) (2) a person using a dirty toilet (disgust) (3) fish at the great barrier reef (neutral). Participants in the first two groups were also asked to write how they would feel if they were in those situations. They then gave participants a highlighter set and determined (1) the price they would be willing to sell (2) the price at which they would be willing to buy the set.

Hint 42

Participants in the first two groups were willing to sell the set for less than the neutral group. The sadness group was willing to pay more. This may be because sadness is associate with a need for change and disgust is associated with a need to expel things

Front 43

opt-in procedure

Back 43

procedure in which a person is required to take an active step to choose a course of action (i.e., choosing to be an organ donor)

Front 44

opt-out procedure

Back 44

procedure in which a person must take an active step to avoid a course of action (i.e., choosing not to be an organ donor)

Hint 44

France has high organ donor rate because they use opt-out procedure where everyone is an organ donor unless they opt-out. the opt-in vs opt out results indicate that the procedure used to identify ppls willingness to be organ donors does have an effect

Front 45

example of how the wording of a problem can influence a decision

Back 45

pg 380

Front 46

risk aversion strategy

Back 46

a decision making strategy that is governed by the idea of avoiding a risk. Often used when a problem is state in terms of gains.

Front 47

risk-taking strategy

Back 47

governed by the idea of taking risks. Often used when a problem is stated in terms of losses

Front 48

framing effect

Back 48

decisions are influenced by how the choices are stated or framed

Front 49

justification in decision making experiment

Back 49

pg 381

Front 50

prefrontal cortex

Back 50

activated by stimuli from all of the senses, retrieval of memories, and by the anticipation of future events, and can be effected by a person' emotional state

Front 51

damage to prefrontal cortex

Back 51

women could not plan meals but could cook individual dishes
interferes with ability to act with flexibility which interferes with problem solving
reasoning problems

Front 52

preservation

Back 52

damage to PFC interferes with this ability o switch from one pattern of bx to another

Hint 52

problems with tower of Hanoi

Front 53

neuroeconomics

Back 53

a new approach to studying decision making which includes psychology, neuroscience, and economics

Hint 53

identify areas of brain activated when playing economic games

Front 54

ultimatum game

Back 54

two players; one is proposer and the other the responder. The proposer is given a sum of money and makes an offer on how it should be split to the responder. If they accept it is split according to the proposal but if they reject, neither receives anything.

Hint 54

according to utility theory the responder should accept no matter what, however when given an offer of 1 or 2 almost half reject it because they are angry and think it unfair. more ppl accepted low offers against a computer

Front 55

omission bias

Back 55

the tendency to do nothing to avoid having to make a decision that can be interpreted as causing harm

Hint 55

pg 385