Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
74 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
Cambrian innovations (about 500 million years ago)
|
•The embryo -The first species that could be attributed to the plant kingdom probably evolved during the late Cambrian Period in shallow tidal pools where they would have relatively constant access to water. They probably resembled some of the species of mosses and liverworts that live today. They may have possessed motile (with flagella) sperm cells. Motile sperm cells would swim to the egg cell. The union of the sperm cell nucleus and the egg cell nucleus, called fertilization, occurs and produces a zygote (a fertilized egg). The zygote undergoes a number of mitotic divisions to produce the embryo.
• Embryo protective structures3 The embryo is a multicellular structure that is enclosed in the relatively fragile female reproductive structures. Without any dormant period it grows into a mature plant. The presence of an embryo is a major evolutionary adaptation that will be carried into all succeeding lineages of the plant kingdom. |
|
|
Silurian innovations (about 420 million years ago)
|
• Vascular tissue
The next major evolutionary adaptation to occur in the plant kingdom, probably during the Silurian Period, was the development of vascular tissue. Vascular tissue consists of water and nutrient conducting structures that are present in roots, stems, and most leaves. Water and nutrient conducting structures are called xylem. Nutrient conducting structures are called phloem. The chemical reactions that occur in all cells require the presence of water. Cells that are deprived of water soon die. Plants that are short in stature and grow in or around water have less of a need for water conducting structures to keep all of its parts supplied with water. The evolution of xylem and phloem, along with some other adaptations (discussed below), allowed plants to move away from their aquatic and semi-aquatic environments and to colonize the land. By the late Silurian Period (about 400 million years ago) vascular plants were prevalent on the surface of the land. •Cuticle and stoma Another strategy for providing an adequate supply of water to cells is to conserve the water that is present in the cells. Land plants have developed a waxy covering, called a cuticle, on their above-ground parts. The presence of the cuticle restricts the loss of a large amount of water from plant cells. The epidermal layer (outer surface of cells) of plants also have specialized cells, called guard cells that are able to expand and contract. The expansion and contraction of the guard cells regulates the size of an opening, called the stoma (pl. stomata), that leads to the inside of the plant. Closing the stomata also restricts the loss of water from plant cells. |
|
|
Devonian innovations (about 370 million years ago)
|
• Pollen grain
Need to be able to accomplish fertilization without the aid of water. Ancient plants that grew in moist environments had sperm cells that bear flagella. In order for the sperm cell to fertilize the egg cell it must swim to the egg cell in the open water or in a thin film of water on the surface of the plant. During the Devonian Period land plants developed sperm cells that are encased in a small, light structure called the pollen grain. The pollen grain can be carried in the wind and delivered to the region of the egg cell. • The seed The land environment with its lack of abundant water presents a harsh environment to an embryo that is covered by relatively fragile female reproductive structures. The embryos of land plants have become adapted to this dry condition by becoming enclosed in a hard, durable outer covering, called the seed coat. This outer covering is derived from the tissues of the female reproductive structures that surround the embryo. The hard outer coverings and the embryo contained therein is called the seed. •Dormancy The development of the seed provides an opportunity to delay continued growth until a time when growth conditions are more favorable. This is called dormancy. The seed with its embryo can remain dormant for extended periods of time. This is made possible because of the presence of a hard seed coat that decreases water loss almost entirely. Seeds in a dormant condition have dramatically reduced metabolic rates that allow them to survive and germinate once they come out of dormancy. Seeds have energy-rich food storage materials, called endosperm, that are produced during their development on the plant. Seeds can utilize this food source during dormancy, and especially during the germination process. |
|
|
Jurassic innovations (about 150 million years ago)
|
• The flower
The development of the flower provided distinct advantages for plants. The parts of the flower consist of modified leaves that have specific functions. These include the protection of the sexual parts, attraction of pollinators, and the dispersal of the seeds. The structure of the flower and the functions of all of its parts will be discussed below. The fossil record of the Cretaceous Period (about 66 to 144 million years ago) is full of evidences of flowering plants. Many of them bear a close resemblance to present-day species. |
|
|
Nonvascular plants
|
• Without water and nutrient conducting tissues
•E.g. mosses and liverworts |
|
|
Vascular plants
|
• With water conducting tissues
•E.g. ferns, gymnosperms, flowering plants |
|
|
Seedless plants
|
•Reproducing by spores
•E.g. mosses, liverworts, ferns |
|
|
Seed plants
|
• Reproducing by seeds
•E.g. gymnosperms, angiosperms |
|
|
Gymnosperms
|
• Seeds without a covering (fruit)
•E.g. pines, spruces, firs |
|
|
Angiosperms
|
•Seeds with a covering (fruit)
•E.g. flowering plants |
|
|
Monocots
|
• Parallel leaf veins, flower parts in multiples of three
•E.g. grasses, lilies, orchids |
|
|
Dicots
|
• Net-veined leaves, flower parts in multiples of four or five
•E.g. legumes, roses, asters |
|
|
Division Hepatophyta – liverworts
|
•E.g. Marchantia
•Ribbon-like thallus (body) •Rhizoids to anchor to substrate •Asexual reproduction – gemma cup with gemmae •Sexual reproduction •Gametophyte: meiospore, larger haploid thallus, antheridia, motile sperm, archegonia, egg, (fertilization) •Sporophyte: zygote, embryo, capsule, (meiosis) |
|
|
Division Bryophyta – mosses
|
•E.g. Bryum, Polytrichum, Mnium
•Leafy plants with thread-like, terminal stalks •Rhizoids to anchor to substrate •Asexual reproduction – fragmentation •Sexual reproduction •Gametophyte: meiospore, larger leafy plants, antheridia, motile sperm, archegonia, egg, (fertilization) •Sporophyte: zygote, embryo, stalk, capsule, (meiosis) |
|
|
Division Anthocerotophyta – hornworts
|
• E.g. Anthoceros
•Ribbon-like thallus (body), stalk and capsule for sporophyte •Rhizoids to anchor to substrate •Asexual reproduction – fragmentation •Sexual reproduction •Gametophyte: meiospore, larger haploid thallus, antheridia, motile sperm, archegonia, egg, (fertilization) •Sporophyte: zygote, embryo, capsule, (meiosis) |
|
|
Division Rhyniophyta – "fossil plants"
|
•E.g. Rhynia, Cooksonia, Rhyniophyton
•Dichotomously branched stems •Without leaves, scales •Rhizoids for attachment to substrate •Sexual reproduction not observed •Gametophyte: unknown •Sporophyte: branched plant, sporangia terminal on stems |
|
|
Division Psilotophyta – whisk ferns
|
•E.g. Psilotum, Tmesipteris
•Dichotomously branched green stems •Without leaves, scales "enations" •Rhizoids for attachment to substrate •Asexual reproduction – fragmentation •Sexual reproduction •Gametophyte: meiospore, small haploid thallus, antheridia, motile sperm, archegonia, egg, (fertilization) •Sporophyte: zygote, embryo, branched plant, sporangium lateral on branches, three fused sporangia (synangium), (meiosis) |
|
|
Division Lycopodiophyta – club mosses
|
•E.g. Lycopodium, Selaginella
•Dichotomously branched stems •Small, thin leaves (microphylls) covering stems •Rhizoids for attachment to substrate •Asexual reproduction – fragmentation •Sexual reproduction •Gametophyte: meiospore, small haploid thallus, antheridia, motile sperm, archegonia, egg, (fertilization) •Sporophyte: zygote, embryo, branched plant, sproangium, (meiosis) |
|
|
Division Equisetophyta – horsetails
|
•E.g. Equisetum, Sphenophyllum, Calamites
•Single stems or branches in whorls around stems •Small, thin leaves (microphylls) in whorls around stems •Rhizoids for attachment to substrate •Asexual reproduction – fragmentation •Sexual reproduction •Gametophyte: meiospore, small haploid thallus, antheridia, motile sperm, archegonia, egg, (fertilization) •Sporophyte: zygote, embryo, large plant, terminal cone (strobilus), sproangium, (meiosis) |
|
|
Division Polypodiophyta – ferns
|
Division Polypodiophyta – ferns1415
•E.g. Polypodium, Athyrium, Ophioglossum, Botrychium, Dryopteris, Adiantum, Cystopteris, Onoclea, Pellaea, Matteuccia •Single stems or branched rhizomes (underground) •Large leaves (macrophylls) alternating around stems •Roots for attachment to substrate • Asexual reproduction – fragmentation •Sexual reproduction •Gametophyte: meiospore, small haploid thallus, antheridia, motile sperm, archegonia, egg, (fertilization) •Sporophyte: zygote, embryo, large plant, collection of sporangia (sorus, pl. sori), (meiosis) |
|
|
Division Pinophyta – gymnosperms
|
•E.g. Pinus, Picea, Abies, Larix, Pseudotsuga, Tsuga, Sequoia, Matasequoia, Taxodium, Thuja, Juniperus, Cedrus
•Single stems or branched shrubs •Large leaves (macrophylls), broadleaf, scale, or needle •Roots for attachment to substrate •Asexual reproduction – fragmentation, but rare •Sexual reproduction •Gametophyte: microspore (pollen grain, nonmotile sperm), megaspore (embryo sac, egg cell), (fertilization) •Sporophyte: zygote, embryo, large plant, naked ovules, pollen cones, (meiosis) |
|
|
Division Cycadophyta – cycads
|
• E.g. Cycas, Zamia, Dioon
• Single woody stems •Large evergreen leaves (macrophylls) spirally arranged •Roots for attachment to substrate •Asexual reproduction – fragmentation, but rare •Sexual reproduction •Gametophyte: microspore (pollen grain, nonmotile sperm), megaspore (embryo sac, egg cell), (fertilization) •Sporophyte: zygote, embryo, large plant, ovule cones, naked ovules, pollen cones, (meiosis) |
|
|
Division Ginkgophyta – Ginkgo biloba
|
•E.g. Ginkgo biloba (the only species in the whole Division)
•A Division with only one tree species •Fan-shaped leaves (macrophylls), dichotomous venation •Roots for attachment to substrate •Asexual reproduction – fragmentation, but rare •Sexual reproduction •Gametophyte: microspore (pollen grain, nonmotile sperm), megaspore (embryo sac, egg cell), (fertilization) •Sporophyte: zygote, embryo, tree, paired naked ovules, pollen cones, (meiosis) |
|
|
Division Gnetophyta – gnetophytes
|
•E.g. Gnetum, Welwitschia, Ephedra
•Small trees or shrubs, mostly tropical •Broad leaves (macrophylls) •Roots for attachment to substrate •Asexual reproduction – fragmentation, but rare •Sexual reproduction •Gametophyte: microspore (pollen grain, nonmotile sperm), megaspore (embryo sac, egg cell), (fertilization) •Sporophyte: zygote, embryo, large plant, naked ovules in cones or solitary, pollen cones, (meiosis) |
|
|
Division Magnoliophyta – flowering plants
|
•E.g. Rosa, Iris, Aster, Robinia, Dianthus, Lilium, Triticum, Zea, Phaseolus, Glycine, Orchis, Poa, Gladiolus, Fuchsia, Tulipa
•Herbs, shrubs, or trees •Broad or linear leaves (macrophylls) •Roots for attachment to substrate •Asexual reproduction – fragmentation •Sexual reproduction •Gametophyte: microspore (pollen grain, nonmotile sperm), megaspore (embryo sac, egg cell), (fertilization) •Sporophyte: zygote, embryo, large plant, flower, ovule covered by fruit, pollen contained in anther of stamen, (meiosis) •The Division Magnoliophyta is divided into two major groups (Classes). 1.Class Magnoliopsida – the dicots• Seed embryo with two leaves (cotyledons) •Macrophylls with net leaf venation •Stem vascular bundles in concentric ring •Flower parts in multiples of four or five 2.Class Liliopsida – the monocots•Seed embryo with one leaf (cotyledon) •Macrophylls with parallel leaf venation •Stem vascular bundles scattered •Flower parts in multiples of three |
|
|
Nonvascular plants
|
• Liverworts, hornworts, mosses
•Major portion of life cycle in gametophyte (haploid) generation •Only diploid stage is zygote, sporangium stalk, and sporangium •Flagellated sperm cells – water dependant •No observable difference between microspores and megaspores |
|
|
Seedless vascular plants
|
•Whisk ferns, club mosses, horse tails, ferns
•Major portion of life cycle in sporophyte (diploid) generation •Only haploid stage is small thallus with gametangia •Flagellated sperm cells – water dependant •Some have observable difference between microspores and megaspores (some club mosses and ferns); some do not (whisk ferns and horse tails) |
|
|
Seed plants
|
•Conifers, cycads, Ginkgo, gnetophytes, flowering plants
•Major portion of life cycle in sporophyte (diploid) generation •Only haploid stage is pollen grain and embryo sac •Nonflagellated sperm cells – not water dependant •All have observable difference between microspores (pollen grain) and megaspores (embryo sac) |
|
|
Phylum Porifera (The Sponges)
|
• 5,000 species
•Cellular level (no nerves, communication) •Origin prior to Cambrian •Sessile filter feeder •Specialized cells – choanocytes •Digestion occurs in individual cells •Asexual Reproduction by fragmentation or budding •Sexual Reproduction by producing gametes – self fertile (hermaphroditic) egg fertilized by motile sperm •Free swimming larval stage •Osculum – opening in top of body for outgoing water flow •Gemmule formation – encapsulated cell enables sponge to live through harsh conditions •Nearly all sponges contain spongin, the spongy material which gives them their "spongy" quality •Spicules – internal "skeleton" for support present in some species, made of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) or of silica |
|
|
Phylum Cnidaria (The Cnidarians)
|
• 9,000 species
•Tubular or bell-shaped •Found generally in shallow coastal waters •Sac type body plan •Nematocysts – stinging cells used to paralyze prey •2 body forms – polyp and medusa – alternate in life cycle •Radial symmetry •2 germ layers (dipoblastic) •Gastro-vascular cavity in between layers, separated by mesoglea •Nerve net •Polyp - generally sessile, mouth faces up (oral disk), includes corals, anemones •Medusa, free living, mobile, more mesoglea, mouth faces down, includes jellyfish •Some Interesting Cnidarians •Portuguese Man of War – colony of modified polyps and medusae which can become very large •Hydra – Has the ability to move in polyp stage and can reproduce by budding •Obelia – Colony of polyps which undergoes an alteration of generations of life cycles by process called strobilation. |
|
|
Phylum Platyhelminthes (The Flatworms)
|
•13,000 species
•Free-living or parasitic •Sac type body plan •3 germ layers (tripoblastic) •Acoelomate (no body cavity) •Dorso-ventrally flattened •Ladder-like nerve system •Cephalization – head region development •Planarians (freshwater turbellarians) •Small and live in lakes, streams, etc. •Carnivorous •Excretory system •Asexual reproductive ability – fragmentation •Sexual reproductive ability – production of sperm and egg – self-fertile (hermaphroditic) •Some species capable of regeneration – production of a new organism from an excised portion of the parent organism •Flukes (Class: Trematoda) •Named for organ that they inhabit •Vertebrate endoparasites (internal body parasites) •Elongated or oval body structure •Have oral sucker and sometimes others for attachment •Most reproduce asexually •Schistosomiasis8 •Blood fluke is carrier •Sexual reproduction •Requires intermediate hosts (fish, snail) •Tapeworms (Class: Cestoda)9 •Head region (scolex) has hooks, suckers •Proglottids – body segments containing full reproductive capability •After fertilization, gravid proglottids break off and pass through feces •Ingested proglottid releases eggs which encyst in muscle |
|
|
Phylum Nematoda (The Roundworms)
|
• 500,000 species
•Found everywhere – Cobb (1914) said that the earth with nothing but nematodes would still be dimly recognizable •236 species found in 6.7 cc of coastal mud •90,000 species in a rotten apple •Smooth, non-segmented •Pseudocoelom – body cavity incompletely lined with mesoderm •Tube-within-a-tube body plan •Some are predators, but many are scavengers or parasites •Characteristic whip-like movement due to longitudinal muscles •Roundworm Parasites: • Ascaris – eggs mature in soil and after ingestion burrow into lungs. Upon second swallowing reside in intestine, where they mate. •Pinworms – parasites in humans and animals •Trichinella – passed in raw pork, encyst in muscles •Filarial worms cause many diseases such as heartworm in dogs, Elephantiasis in humans – caused when worm enters lymph system and molts, worms block flow and cuticle of worm falls with gravity into legs. |
|
|
Phylum Rotifers (The Rotifers)
|
•2,000 species
•Pseudocoelomate •Internal organs for digestion and reproduction •Crown of cilia (corona) resembles a rotating wheel used in locomotion and feeding |
|
|
No germ layers
|
Phylum Porifera – sponges
|
|
|
Two germ layers (ectoderm and endoderm)
|
Phylum Cnidaria – jellyfish, corals, sea anemonies
Phylum Ctenophora – comb jellies |
|
|
Three germ layers (ectoderm, endoderm, mesoderm), but no body cavity
|
Phylum Platyhelminthes – flatworms
Phylum Nemertea – ribbon worms |
|
|
Three germ layers, body cavity, but no true coelom
|
Phylum Nematoda – round worms
Phylum Rotifera – rotifers |
|
|
Three germ layers, body cavity, true coelom, protostomic development
|
Phylum Mollusca - snails, clams, squids, etc.
Phylum Annelida - earthworms, centipedes, millipedes, etc. Phylum Arthropoda - crustaceans, insects, spiders, etc. |
|
|
Three germ layers, body cavity, true coelom, deuterostomic development
|
Phylum Echinodermata – sea stars, sand dollars, sea cucumbers
Phylum Chordata – fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals |
|
|
Bivalves – clams, mussels, scallops
|
A shell of two pieces
Mantle secretes shell Radula for feeding Incurrent and excurrent siphons for feeding Gill for extracting oxygen out of water Muscular foot for locomotion Open circulatory system |
|
|
Cephalopods – squid, octopus, cuttlefish, nautilus5
|
"head foot"
Internal "shell", external in nautilus Tentacles for feeding Beak for feeding Eye that focuses an image on a retina Funnel for locomotion Closed circulatory system |
|
|
Gastropods – snail, whelk, conch, periwinkle, slug6
|
"stomach foot"
External shell of one piece (except slugs) Torsion (spiral) shell Pair of stalked eyes Pair of tentacles for sensation Muscular foot for locomotion Radula for feeding |
|
|
Phylum Annelida – the segmented worms
Polychaetes – marine worms |
Many bristles (setae, s. seta) on segments
Setae used for locomotion and respiration Modified anterior organs for feeding and sensation Hydrostatic skeleton – water-filled tube Nephridia for nitrogenous waste excretion |
|
|
Phylum Annelida – the segmented worms
Oligochaetes – earthworms8 |
Few bristles (setae)
Few appendages Few sense organs (underground) Hydrostatic skeleton – water-filled tube Nephridia for nitrogenous waste excretion |
|
|
Phylum Annelida – the segmented worms
Hirudinea – leeches |
Obligate external parasites feeding on blood
Anterior and posterior suckers No bristles (setae) Powerful anticoagulant Some used medicinally |
|
|
Phylum Arthropoda – the arthropods
Crustacea – copepods, krill, crayfish, lobster, crab |
Calcified exoskeleton
Head with a pair of compound eyes Head with 5 pair of appendages: sensation: antennae, antennules feeding: mandibles, 1st maxillae, 2nd maxillae Head and thorax fused forming cephalothorax |
|
|
Phylum Arthropoda – the arthropods
Uniramians – insects, millipedes, centipedes |
Chitinous exoskeleton-
Head with one pair of compound eyes, simple eyes One pair of antennae on head for sensation One pair of mandibles on head for feeding One or two pairs of maxillae on head for feeding Breathe air by system of tubes (tracheae, s. trachea) on abdomen A.Insecta – the insects Excretion of nitrogenous waste by Malpighian tubules Growth by incomplete or complete metamorphosis Openings of tracheae called spiracles Dorsal, tubular heart Internal fertilization B. Centipedes ("100 feet")Head and many segments Head with a pair of antennae Head with mouthparts with poisonous fangs Each segment has a pair of walking legs Carnivorous C. Millipedes ("1000 feet") Head and many segments Some segments fused Head with a pair of antennae Head with mouthparts Soil dwelling, feeding on dead organic matter |
|
|
Phylum Arthropoda – the arthropods
Chelicerates – spider, scorpion, tick, mite, horseshoe crab, sea spiders |
Appendages attached to cephalothorax
First pair of appendages (chelicerae) enlarged for feeding Second pair of appendages (pedipalps) feeding or sensory Four pair of walking appendages Abdomen containing internal organs |
|
|
Phylum Echinodermata – echinoderms
|
The name echinoderm means "spine skin"
Sea star, sea urchin, sand dollar, crinoid, sea cucumber Endoskeleton of calcium-rich spine-bearing plates Spines stick out through skin layer Bilateral symmetry in juvenile stage (larva) Radial symmetry in adult stage 1. Class Crinoidea – crinoids Stalked sea lilies and feather stars 2. Class Holothuroidea Sea cucumbers with feeding tentacles 3. Class Echinoidea Sea urchins, sand dollars 4. Class Ophiuroidea Brittle stars with central disc and radiating arms 5. Class Asteroidea Sea stars (star fish) |
|
|
Previous
Next Phylum Chordata - the chordates Subphylum Cephalochordata - Sea lancelets |
Filter feeders at sea shores
Distinct bilateral symmetry with a defined head region Possess the four chordate characteristics both in larval and adult stages |
|
|
Phylum Chordata - the chordates
Subphylum Urochordata - Sea squirts |
Filter feeders on ocean floor
Have a vase- or urn-shaped body with a less distinct head region in adult stage Possess the four chordate characteristics in the larval stage only Undergo a metamorphosis from larval to adult stage |
|
|
Phylum Chordata - the chordates
Subphylum Vertebrata |
Marine and terrestrial animals in many different habitats
Distinct bilateral symmetry in all stages of development Possess the four chordate characteristics in at least some stage of development Bony or cartilaginous vertebrae that surround the nerve chord Living endoskeleton (internal skeleton) Closed circulatory system Paired appendages Efficient respiration and excretion High degree of cephalization (collection of nerve tissue [brain] in the head region) |
|
|
Subphylum Vertebrata
Class Ostracoderma |
Extinct, jawless, finless, armored fish
|
|
|
Subphylum Vertebrata
Class Agnatha |
Extant jawless, finless fishes; e.g. lamprey, hagfish
|
|
|
Subphylum Vertebrata
Class Placoderma |
Extinct jawed fishes, bony plates, paired fins
|
|
|
Subphylum Vertebrata
Class Chondrichthyes |
Cartilaginous fishes – skeleton of cartilage; e.g. shark, stingray, skate
|
|
|
Subphylum Vertebrata
Class Osteichthyes |
Bony fishes – skeleton of bone; e.g. perch, trout, bass
|
|
|
Subphylum Vertebrata
Class Amphibia – |
amphibiansJuvenile stage in water – gills, metamorphosis
Adult stage on land – lungs Egg without a shell – aquatic habitat Smooth, moist skin – aquatic or moist terrestrial habitat Three-chambered heart Tetrapods – 4 walking legs Ectothermic – environment regulates body temperature E.g. salamanders, newts, frogs, toads |
|
|
Subphylum Vertebrata
Class Reptilia – |
the reptiles Juvenile and adult stage on land - lungs
Scaly, dry skin – terrestrial habitat Three-chambered heart Lungs with enclosing, expandable rib cage Egg with a shell – terrestrial habitat Tetrapods – 4 walking legs Ectothermic – environment regulates body temperature E.g. snakes, turtles, alligators, crocodiles, lizards |
|
|
Subphylum Vertebrata
Class Aves |
– the birdsJuvenile and adult stage on land - lungs
Feathers – modified scales for flight and protection Four-chambered heart Lungs with enclosing, expandable rib cage Egg with a shell – terrestrial habitat Tetrapods – 2 walking legs, 2 wings for flight Endothermic – metabolism regulates body temperature E.g. cardinal, eagle, flamingo, pelican, jay, crow, robin |
|
|
Subphylum Vertebrata
Class Mammalia |
the mammalsJuvenile and adult stage on land – lungs (aquatic mammals – dolphin, porpoise, whale, seal)
Body hair for protection and temperature regulation Four-chambered heart Lungs with enclosing, expandable rib cage Tetrapods – 4 walking legs, or with 2 "arms" for grasping Endothermic – metabolism regulates body temperature Three types of gestation of young: 1.Egg with a hard shell (monotremes), e.g. spiny anteater, duck-billed platypus 2.Young carried in a pouch on the female (marsupials), e.g. opossum, koala, kangaroo 3.Young carried inside of female body attached to a placenta (placentals), E.g. bats, cats, rats, dogs, monkey, whale, horse, cow |
|
|
Tundra
|
•Location – (Arctic) circumpolar just below northern ice sheet, (Alpine) tops of mountains above timberline.
•Environment – cold and dark most of year, precipitation locked up as ice and snow, soil permanently frozen below surface (permafrost). •Plants – grasses, sedges, mosses, lichens, small woody shrubs, short-lived perennials •Animals – lemming, ptarmigan (a grouse), musk ox; migrating shore birds, caribou (reindeer), and wolf; polar bear near coastal areas. |
|
|
Coniferous Forest
|
•Location – (Taiga) circumpolar just south of tundra, (Montane Coniferous Forest) near tops of mountains, (Temperate Rain Forest) west coast of Canada and United States.
•Environment – lower average annual temperature, but with a somewhat distinct warm season. •Plants – cone-bearing trees, limited under-story of mosses and lichens. •Animals – bear, beaver, moose, deer, muskrat, wolf, wolverine, mountain lion. |
|
|
Temperate Deciduous Forest
|
•Location – eastern North America, Europe, eastern Asia.
•Environment – Moderate temperatures, high rainfall, distinct seasons. •Plants – beech, maple, oak, hickory, linden form canopy (tallest trees); birch, ironwood, wild cherry form understory (smaller trees); various shrubs form next lower layer; perennial, prevernal (flowering before leaves appear) herbs form lowest layer. •Animals – squirrels, cottontail rabbit, shrew, skunk, woodchuck, chipmunk, turkey, grouse, red fox, whitetail deer, black bear, frog, turtle, beaver, muskrat |
|
|
Tropical Forest
|
•Location – near equator in South America, Africa, and Indo-Malaysia.
•Environment – always warm, ample rainfall, seasonality may be due to monsoon rainfall pattern. •Plants – greatest diversity of any ecosystem; complex forest with many layers; broadleaf evergreen trees, epiphytes (plants growing on tree trunks), lianas (woody vines growing in trees). •Animals – paca, agouti, peccary, armadillo, many insects, monkey, sloth, parrot, toucan, frog, snake, lizard, lemur, jaguar (S.A.), leopard (Africa & Asia). |
|
|
Shrublands
|
•Location – coastal areas, western North and South America, Mediterranean, western Australia, cape of South Africa.
•Environment – dry summers, wet winters with moderate rainfall. •Plants – shrubs with thick, leathery leaves (sage brush, rabbit brush, shadscale); perennials with thick, underground roots (sego lily, yucca, balsam root). •Animals – sage grouse, lizards, mice, coyote, magpie. |
|
|
Grasslands
|
•Location – (Temperate grassland) Russian steppes, South American pampas, North American prairies; (savanna) central Africa.
•Environment – moderate, seasonal rainfall, insufficient for trees but more than in deserts. •Plants – tall, short, and bunch grasses depending on moisture; perennial herbs with thick roots. Acacia trees in savanna. •Animals – large grazing mammals (bison, antelope, zebra, giraffe, wildebeest); carnivores (lion, cheetah). |
|
|
Deserts
|
•Location – western North and South America, northern Africa (Sahara), central Asia and Australia, Middle East.
•Environment – low rainfall, hot days, cold nights. •Plants – sparse to none in shifting sand dunes; cacti in North America; non-cactus succulents on other continents. •Animals – lizards, burrowing spiders, insects, snakes, roadrunner, kangaroo rat, coyote, hawks. |
|
|
Lakes
|
•Location – topographic basins on land masses that hold precipitation.
•Environment – oligotrophic (nutrient-poor) or eutrophic (nutrient-rich); temperature stratification: epilimnion, thermocline, hypolimnion. •Plants – emergent (rooted in underwater soil) sedges and rushes, floating duck and pond weeds, phytoplankton (microscopic autotrophs) diatoms and algae. •Animals – fish, frog, salamander, turtle, crayfish, worms, clams, zooplankton (microscopic heterotrophs). |
|
|
Estuaries
|
•Location – partially enclosed body of water where freshwater and seawater mix. E.g. coastal bay, tidal marsh, fjord, delta, lagoon.
•Environment - rapid salinity changes, abundant nutrients from freshwater river input. •Plants – cordgrass, sedges, rushes, phytoplankton (microscopic autotrophs). •Animals – small fish, spawning larger fish, crustaceans, mollusks, zooplankton (microscopic heterotrophs). |
|
|
Seashores
|
•Location – at ocean edges where waves and tides wash on rocks or sand.
•Environment – saltwater, periodic flooding during high tide, exposure to air and sun during low tide. •Plants – brown algae, sea weeds, emergent hydrophytes, phytoplankton (microscopic autotrophs). •Animals – (rocky) barnacles, oyster, mussels, snails, limpets, periwinkles; (sandy) ghost crabs, sand hoppers, sand worms, sand shrimp, sand dollars. |
|
|
Oceans: Pelagic Division
|
•Location – open (surface) waters: Neritic Province (above continental shelf), Oceanic Province (above oceanic basins).
•Environment – has more nutrients due to more sunlight; neritic has most nutrients due to nearness to land. Influenced by warm and cold ocean currents. •Plants – phytoplankton (microscopic autotrophs). •Animals – zooplankton (microscopic heterotrophs), herring, bluefish, mackerel, tuna, shark, dolphin, porpoise, whale, shrimp, squid. |
|
|
Oceans: Benthic Division
|
•Location – deep waters
•Environment – less nutrients (dependant on nutrients falling from pelagic division), less sunlight, cold water and high pressure. •Plants – large brown algae on continental shelf; red algae in ocean depths, phytoplankton. •Animals – sea lilies, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, tube worms, chemosynthetic bacteria (near hydrothermal vents). |
|
|
Coral Reefs
|
•Location – shallow, warm, tropical waters
•Environment – many nutrients, very high species diversity, easily disturbed niches. •Plants – calcareous (forming bodies of calcium carbonate, i.e. limestone) red and green algae. •Animals – corals, sea anemones, sponges, sea squirts, fan worms, crabs, sea urchins, barracuda, moray eel, sharks, many species of brightly colored small fish. |
