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105 Cards in this Set
- Front
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Charles Dawson |
1912- piltdown discovery Modern human head, ape like jaw Predated Neanderthals, resembled modern humans more closely Fit racial beliefs at the time- brains were unique and separated us from primitive ancestors |
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Arthur Smith Woodward |
Reconstructed piltdown fossils as the evolutionary link between apes and humans |
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Hrdlicka |
Refuted Piltdown discovery Said brain wouldn't be evolving past the rest of the body that far Jaw and skull too eroded to see if they were from same species/fit together Believed Neanderthals were ancestors of humans so these fossils wouldn't fit that chronology |
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Gerrit Miller |
hired by Hrdlicka to compare casts of Piltdown fossils to chimpanzees Concludes that the two specimens cannot be from one individual (2 different species) people (e.g. Pyrcraft) disregard his analysis due to the use of casts instead of the real specimens |
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William Pycraft |
Conducted his own analysis of Piltdown fossils, published a rebuttal to Miller's findings |
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Kenneth Oakley |
1949--reanalyzed Piltdown fossils using fluorine dating method--> Piltdown was a fraud The fossils were stained and had teeth ground down to look human |
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Thomas Wilson |
1895-- conducted original fluorine dating test on human pelvis and sloth fossil This test could have been applied to Piltdown (it was available at the time) but it was rejected by Hrdlicka; it disagreed with his evolutionary beliefs and didn't trust the fluorine test validity (it's important to note the paradigms that influence their decisions, also how history can influence the present) |
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1927 Folsom, New Mexico |
Brown/Roberts found clovis point in associating with pleistocene bison ribs, telling us that humans were around that long ago. Dozens of sites like this were found after archaeologists began looking for clovis points at sites with big game (paradigms, expectations/predispositions) |
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W.H. Holmes |
hired (over Franz Boas) for World's Fair Museum curator job in Chicago 1894, Holmes was older, more experienced He focused on navigating the present landscape of anthropology (in museums) while Boas wanted to change the landscape and move anthro to university setting; thought it wasn't just about the "stuff" in museums Have to look at the whole picture, Non-epistemic influences on their work |
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Herodotus (484-425 BC) |
(Greek) assembled facts about cultures, climate mostly Non-judgemental comparative perspective, no ethnocentrism |
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Pliny (23-79 AC) |
(Roman) believed everything looked the same beyond one's own culture; very little description interested in unnatural traits (e.g. cannibalism, three eyes) hard to know what was fact or story |
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Pomponius/Solinus |
derived their work from Pliny, which perpetuated the myths of other cultures |
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Augustine |
(Middle Ages) 354-430 we can only know what God tell us Age of Geographic ignorance |
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Medieval Encyclopedists |
Batholomew Anglicus Isidore, Bishop of Seville intended to capture all human knowledge in one entity (miscellaneous facts) cultures/people mentioned in passing w/ little information, shows the lack of understanding of the world at the time this book was a reference for centuries Crusades brought more knowledge of geography and printing press helped popularity of Bartholomew's book |
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Marco Polo (1254-1324) |
courier for Kublai Khan, observed people/customs on his travels & reported back to Khan Rusticello writes book for Polo about explorations/observations & triggers exploration in anthropology, increases maps, developments in ship building, great empires |
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Peter Martyr |
solicited info from travelers to learn about natives; wrote about what he was conditioned to write about Time: every time a ship returns, world is expanding, hard to decipher truth from stories |
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de Montaigne (1533-1592) |
cut through the myths/stories, talked to sailors Native Americans were only "barbaric" or "savages" b/c they were different from European culture |
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John Locke (1632-1704) |
human mind at birth is empty and is filled by socialization/learning; different experiences produce different cultures/behaviors |
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Paul Thiry, Baron d'Holbach (1770) |
man is a work of nature governed by natural laws; never "free" |
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de Montesquieu (1689-1755) |
climate affects human variation |
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Theophilus, Africanus, Ussher, Kepler, Lightfoot |
created dating chronologies based on the Bible (e.g. Jesus' death, creation of earth), very specific (9am, October 26, etc.) |
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Isaac Newton |
1687- calculated how long it would take a sphere the size of earth made of molten mass to cool down (estimating the age of earth) |
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Halley |
1715- ocean receives saltiness from rivers and has increased salinity over time; wanted to prove earth was much older than previously thought, make its age measurable |
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de Maillet |
1750- earth's course was directed by chance, not God; based earth's age on the discovery of a ship 6,000 ft above sea level and used the decreasing sea level (per century) to calculate age of man to be 4.8mya which was relatively accurate |
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Buffon |
1707-1788 series of experiments heating various metal balls & observed cooling rate divided earth's history into 6 periods earth was created from impact of a comet & the sun, then cooled enough to form organic life |
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Playfair |
1802 said to leave the bible alone, was not meant to be a scientific account of earth's history; Moses' chronology only applies to human race |
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Understanding fossils |
fossils were thought to be anything dug up from the ground; not yet recognized as once-living things, poor preservation and lack of understanding (context) |
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Aristotle |
384-322 BC influenced the Great Chain of Being with his "Ladder of Nature" thought everything in the world served a purpose for humans |
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Doctrine of Plenitude and Providence |
stated that the world already held all possible forms of existence (no extinction possible); God preserves everything in creation, guides the universe; these were contradictory to finding fossils of extinct species |
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Great Chain of Being |
dominated western thought in 17th-18th centuries; derived from Aristotle and other early philosophers Nature formed intricate hierarchy of living things, of which humans were at the top |
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John Locke |
1690 thought living things filled in slots of a perfectly created world by God; separate creations that are linked together (intricate web in which one category could not be deleted) that demonstrated the perfection of God did not believe in extinction |
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Alex Pope |
Thought extinction would break the great chain of being (similar to John Locke) |
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Proving the organic origin of fossils: Nicolaus Steno |
1638-1686 had more radical beliefs bc he was under protection of a prince; observed that fossils were not part of the rock they were found in but once soft; he realized how stratigraphic layers demonstrate relative time; his theories were soon used to support extinction (species were not after all fixed, living groups) |
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John Woodward |
1665-1728 (proving reality of extinction) demonstrated that some fossilized organisms were actually still living |
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Georges Cuvier (1769-1832) |
proved extinction is real based on idea that if he found a fossil of a large terrestrial animal, no one could claim it was still living bc it would've been seen by someone; proved extinction of mastodon species; people then retracted anti-extinction ideas, but saying it still represents God's perfection in creating a chain of beings that does not fall apart if species go extinct |
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Cuvier cont'd |
Earth has ben inhabited by animals part of a period of life history, mass catastrophe, new creation, repeat. Cuvier provided by the early 1800s a means of telling time, a sharp boundary between human/pre-human time |
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Understanding artifacts: late 1600s begun to develop a clear sense of what artifacts were |
early 1700s, not questioning if its an artifact but began to debate what its purpose was, details |
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Edward Lhywd (1660-1709) |
observed that stone predates use of metals based on finding stone deeper in earth and not in association with metals; development of human models for tool use |
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Goguet (1716-1758) |
classified sequence of artifact types based on raw materials; by 1800 all pieces are in place for pushing human prehistory further back (techniques, technology, time markers) |
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Grappling with Human Physical Diversity |
Isidore, bishop of Seville--people are different due to climate differences Da Vinci--this doesn't explain why ppl in Africa are black instead of white, or why a biracial child is brown and not black/white Jean Bodin--people in similar climates still show differences |
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Kaspar Bauhin (1560-1624) |
classified 6000 plants, idea to start empiricism as science, not just rely on bible (Brunfels classified plants, too) |
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van Leeuwenhoek (early 17th c) |
discovery of organisms at the macro and micro level (use of microscopes) |
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Closing in on a species definition (john locke and john ray) |
need for classification of the essences of things vs. recognition of two variants actually being the same species |
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John Locke |
struggled with the "essences" of things (i.e. the name we give things vs the real essences); "if we don't understand the rock we walk on, we can't understand the complicated things" boundaries between species & how we classify them are just our own impositions of order on the world |
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John Ray |
argued that no, there are inherent essences/differences between things but we can visibly see them; he did a systematic description of all known plants, observed that a common descent held a species together "a species is never born from the seed of another" |
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Linnaeus |
The Grand Classifier, created Linnean system (Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species) true test of a species: fertile offspring grouped humans with great apes |
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Pennant/Aquinas |
strongly disagreed with Linnaeus' ape theory (the point is that people of the time were ok with being from slime of the earth than being classified with apes) |
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Explaining human origins and variety: monogenesis vs. polygenesis |
Monogenesis-faced the problem of biblical creation (6,000 years ago), how we could start from a single pair of humans & end up as diverse as we are today since christians also thought species were static, unchanging, as created by God Polygenesis--separate acts of creation, allowed for variability among humans |
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Blumenbach (1752-1840) |
placed humans in separate order from ape; natural form of all humans was white & races had degenerated to other colors to increasingly primitive forms; racial differences were also due to climate, lifestyle, & inherited acquired characteristics (Lamarckian evolution) these ideas made monogenesis possible again bc it accounted for how variability formed |
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de la Peyrere (1594-1676) Polygenesis |
wrote two books similar in theme anonymously bc he supported polygenesis which went against religion at the time; He claimed that there were people before Adam, the bible only accounts for a percentage of humanity; Adam was father of Jewish people alone (used ex. of Native Americans not being mentioned in the bible so they must have been created separately) concluded that Noah's flood was local, not global; he was imprisoned after his identity found out |
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jose de Acosta |
(1590) first to thing of land bridge theory (that humans traveled from Siberia to Alaska via land bridge) and that's how indians got there [Matthew Hale was similar in thought on land bridge] |
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the Society of Antiquaries (1707, 1780) |
membership completely changed from just rich elite to well-rounded, expert archaeologists (including women) |
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the role of the Bible, Romantic movement, and Turnpike Acts (early 1800s) |
the bible had an influence on archaeology-explanation of human chronological history Romantic--encouraged exploration of the past, if you were a 'good Christian' you could learn about your religion in studying nature-->"natural theology" coupled with the development of road systems Turnpike--notion of studying God's other works (i.e. nature) |
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Tractarian Movement |
Peak of archaeological societies (1840s), emphasized catholic elements of the Church of England & encouraged people to study/look at medieval archaeology/history people were stumbling upon artifacts left and right at medieval churches |
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3 Age System (stone, bronze, iron) |
developed in Denmark, their political status was tumultuous (lack of confidence) which influenced them to establish ancient antiquities/monuments (past glory) Thomsen was hired (by Danish museum) to analyze/sort all the new artifacts [mostly artifacts from late Paleolithic era since Denmark was under ice before then] |
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Christian Thomsen (1768-1865) |
coin collector, independently wealthy (museum didn't have to pay him) organized artifacts in Danish museum by raw material and association & came up w/ Stone, bronze, iron ages Seriation-- arrangement of artifacts into a presumed temporal sequenced based on style & style change (thus styles change in predictable ways over time) |
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Daniel Wilson |
invented term "prehistory" in 1851 there were humans before written history but not before arrival of modern world |
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Sven Nilsson |
Comparative ethnography to reconstruct extinct cultures (similar to Cuvier's comparative anatomy to reconstruct extinct species) |
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prehistory, the bible and 3 age system |
so far no human remains had been found in the premodern world; it only consisted of creatures not mentioned in the bible, so people thought once the premodern world was destroyed, modern humans were created |
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William Buckland |
discovered "red lady of paviland" thought that sand/gravel deposits represented a flood (Noahs arch flood) erratics (boulders) found far from the main deposit, but how does a flood pick up boulders that huge grooves were found in the rock which water wouldn't have created |
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de Charpentier |
observed glacier movement, leaves debris behind and moves w/ force (mechanism by which glacial erratics move) |
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Aggasiz |
Discovering the Ice Age: argument by analogy (jumping to conclusion based on similar characteristics) he assumed the whole planet was covered in ice (but it was only the northern hemisphere) thought glaciers were singular when actually 10-20 ice sheets existed |
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John Frere |
1797--reported that he found weapons made by people in a very remote period (beyond present world) artifacts seemed to be in their primary context, laid down by a person, associated w/ an extinct animal |
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Rejections to Frere |
He was French, bias against them discoveries made by amateurs not scientists evidence came from caves, which were hard to analyze and excavate (stratigraphic layers get disrupted) and context of artifacts was the main method of the time |
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theoretical paradigm |
creates bias toward one's findings if they're expecting a certain outcome or not expecting a completely different possibility (e.g. Bible was the main reference in understanding any findings) people would ignore evidence that conflicts w/ the Bible because they didn't think it was possible/not how the world works (i.e. humans existing in premodern world) |
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Hugh Falconer |
Brixham Cave, he wanted to dig up fossils (wrote to Pengelly who got a committee together to organize his excavation and provide funding) Geological Society of London found stone artifacts w/ extinct animals (undeniably human) --> forced people to consider that humans were around in prehistoric times, but still did not consider cave evidence to be sufficient proof |
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Falconer contd |
Falconer visits de Perthes in Paris, who had found artifacts similar to Falconer's, but in well-laid (reliable) stratigraphic layers then Prestwich & Evans go to de Perthes, finally Lyell goes & is convinced, too they accept the conclusion that Falconer's artifacts are from the Pleistocene Lyell is the expert at the time so people don't refute his acceptance that humans have been around for a very very long time (bible chronology is irrelevant) |
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John Lubbock |
(1834-1913) renamed the Stone Age to the Paleolithic |
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Darwin |
intellectual origins were independent human antiquity wasn't tied to Darwin's evolution theories; ppl accepted a deep human past but strongly objected to Darwin's ideas |
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James Cowles Prichard (1786-1848) |
[1st ed. of book] civilization was a domesticating force; civilization is what causes change in development of human races; the more civilized people were, the more they looked like Europeans Monogenesis supporter--his theory believed change could happen rapidly ("3 generations of slaves were already looking for civilized") |
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Prichard [3rd ed. of book] |
completely changed his beliefs, said no amount of change could account for variety seen in humans if we were from a single pair of original humans (influenced by Morton) |
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Samuel Morton (1799-1848) |
supported Polygenesis- experimented with many skulls, measured them & detected differences mainly in cranial capacity races were very different from one another but little variation within races |
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Gliddon (1809-1857) |
pointed out to Morton that present races were current when Egyptians were around, thus change hadn't happened in even the past 3,000 years; each race was distinct from the beginning & otherwise unaffected by environment; this created a problem for monogenesists, including Prichard who abandoned his chronology belief from a common origin |
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Morton (after Gliddon) [1839] |
wasn't completely converted to polygenesis but said races were separate species so he changed the definition of "species" by eliminating the producing viable offspring requirement |
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Aggasiz on Morton/race |
also believed that races were separate species from the beginning and all had separate histories (very racist, got 'viscerally ill' when a black man prepared his food) |
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Nott (1804-1873) |
thought slaves and owners were different species (slaves were species destined to be enslaved); defended polygenesis by attacking biblical principles; races are not intellectually or anatomically the same (lower races of humans were more closely linked to the animal kingdom than whites) |
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Charles Darwin (1809-1882) |
Darwin had the advantage of wealth/financial security at his time, hung out w/ John Henslow (passed for scientific training) served as a replacement naturalist on the Beagle ship, originally went as company for the captain, Fitzroy Darwin collects specimens at each port, sends them back to England where Henslow works on publishing info while Darwin is travelling |
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Darwin's main arguments |
replaced a static world with an evolving one; things change constantly through space/time; refuted a plan/pattern of creation by a maker, you're lucky or not; sexual selection/dimorphism were driving forces in generating human variation (but where was that origin/when did it take place); implications-- humans have a shared ancestry w/ primates and had prehuman ancestors deep in time |
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Joseph Hooker (1817-1911) |
Darwin shows his first writings about evolution to Hooker (doesn't publish for another 10 years) |
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Alfred Wallace (1823-1913) |
independently comes up with idea of natural selection and shares it with Darwin, who came up with the idea years earlier; motivates Darwin to publish his work; both Wallace and Darwin publish essays in 1859 |
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Darwin cont'd |
said we descended from prehumans similar to primates from Africa (which is where you would find human ancestor fossils); races were not separate or permanent (they grade into one another), they converged somewhere in time Gray and Huxley supported Darwin |
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British Select Committee on Aborigines (1837) |
discussed impact on indigenous people; results were bleak, irreversible damage (violence, extermination, cultural/racial destruction); some people thought this was divine law, the way the world worked, we can't help the results |
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James Prichard (1786-1848) |
addressed the British Association for the Advancement of Science: we need to learn more about these races before they disappear completely (dying, takes notes)--> ethnographic salvage created social anthropology via questionnaire (fill in the blank), which is only in hands of military officers & missionaries bc they're the only ones coming in contact w/ indigenous people Cultural evolutionists of 19th c are spawned by this ethnographic salvaging |
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Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) |
popularized "evolution" (as progress) Von Baer's law: organisms go from simple to complex, increasing heterogeneity; later, he also said organisms don't always progress up, the reverse process is readily put in place; approximate cause of universal evolution was progress, ultimate cause unknown |
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Spencer's development hypothesis |
rejects the bible (i.e. special creation), plants/animals arose from process of transmutation, evolution is a change from incoherent to definite (more complex); human nature was constantly progressing toward perfection |
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Edward B. Tylor (1832-1917) |
couldn't attend university in England bc he was a Quaker, thus he wasn't biased; gives us the modern definition of culture (the complex whole of customs, beliefs, etc) Culture writ large, people are connected by common human thread, communication; Survivals-- culture traits carried on by habit/left over, gives clues to the past ; Learned experiences/knowledge ultimately led to cultural evolution |
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Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) |
studied demography, history, devastating consequences of infectious disease among Native Americans; sent Lewis&Clark with a list of questions/data he wanted them to compile (1803) |
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Henry Schoolcraft (1793-1864) |
first person to "discover" folk narratives; sent by Congress to collect/digest materials that describe Native Americans (1851-57); invited to talk at Grand Order of the Iroquois (club of white guys who act like Indians) |
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Lewis Henry Morgan (1818-1881) |
interested in kinship-- it's a link to the past/ancestry, changes more slowly (was able to find similar kinship between indian tribes) develops first ethnographic account of indian tribe (through Ely Parker) Savagery- barbarism - civilization, marked by certain developments (material, technology) |
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Ely Parker (1828-1895) |
son of an Indian chief, trained as a lawyer to help defend tribes against the government; becomes military secretary to Ulysses S. Grant; bill of surrender at Appomattox courthouse was transcribed by Parker ("today we're all Americans") later was head of Bureau of Indian Affairs (failure due to Grant's corrupt presidency) |
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Comparative method |
What we're seeing in the present is analogous to the past; only as good as the data you have |
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Karl Marx (1818-1883) |
believed in generally progressive picture of history but had apocalyptic ending |
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Engels |
origin of the family, private property and state |
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Boas (1858-1942) |
Historical particularism--learn history of each particular culture/society bc each developed from its own past (collective representation of each past) Future of anthropology is in universities not museums, needs to focus on language, thought, customs, etc. and material obects weren't as significant, their meanings were significant; he began the specialization within anthro (exclusive anthropology) where you needed training Boas spread his academic progeny (while employed at Columbia) across the country 3 books in one year: Linguistics, Physical anthro, and social anthro died of heart attack in arms of Levi-Strauss |
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Changes brought by Boas to the field of anthropology |
need facts before we do any generalizing, changes cultural evolution theories; Galton's problem: difficulty of distinguishing btwn parallel evolution and independent invention (how do you know it's not just diffusion) Tylor's solution: Outlandishness--when a circumstance is so uncommon and it appears in 2 different districts, we have more ground to say they have historical connection |
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Otis Mason (1838-1908) |
organized artifacts by type (e.g. all baskets placed in presumed evolutionary sequence) Boas disagreed w/ this and said taking the artifacts out of context stripped them of meaning (cultural causality); Mason based analysis on objects as the result of like causes Boas said unlike causes can produce like effects |
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W.H. Rivers (1846-1922) |
british hyper-diffusionist (Egyptians spread their culture/civilization throughout the world) |
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Fritz Graebner (1877-1934) |
identifies affinities between groups claimed to be able to reconstruct the original cultures out of which we see the diffusion of traits across space/time with allowance of some modification |
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Criterion of form |
similarities btwn two culture elements that do not automatically arise out of nature or by purpose are the result of diffusion, regardless of intervening distance (if it's not obviously convergence, it's divergence) |
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Criterion of quantity |
the more similarities that are outlandish between two cultures, the higher probability that they are historically connected |
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Otis Mason |
inclusive anthropology; where everybody can study something (even those in charge of psycho patients, e.g.) |
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American antiquarian society |
earliest institution of anthropology, mixed membership, provided publication outlet which was important to an emerging profession |
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Professionalization |
1. A group starts to focus on set of problems, agrees on what's important 2. development of a sociological unit; a group who recognizes one another as being part of a cluster of similarly interested issues 3. advanced degrees, proof that you know what you're talking about/doing, know specifically about your field and there are people who know nothing about your field |
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AAAS |
primary place for late 19th c/early 20th anthropologists/archaeologists to get together at annual meetings none of the societies had money for research, merely a means of getting people together to discuss their research |
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Bureau of (American) Ethnology (1879-1965) |
started by John Wesley Powell, who becomes a national hero after mapping the Colorado River; has congress set aside $20,000 for Bureau; cannot replicate itself, only hire professionals who share their beliefs; clashes with people like Boas who are in universities at this time |
