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228 Cards in this Set
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cell
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the fundemental unit of the human body
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main elements of the cell
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cell membrane
cytoplasma organelles |
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cell membrane
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outer covering of the cell
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semipermeable membrane
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allows certain substances to pass from one side to the other
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cytoplasma
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viscous fluid that fills and gives shape to the cell
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cytosol
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clear liquid portion of cytoplasma
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substances disolved in cytosol
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electrolytes
proteins glucose lipids |
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organelles
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structures that perform specific functions within the cell
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nucleus
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contains genetic material,deoxyribonucleic acid(DNA) and the enzymes nessesary for replication
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endoplasmic reticulum
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building of proteins and lipids
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golgi apparatus
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synthesis and packing of secreations such as mucus and enzymes
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mitochondia
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converts essential nutrients into energy sources, often in the form of ATP
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Adenosine triphosphate
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a high energy compound present in all cells, espeially muscle cells. when split by enzyme action it yeilds energy
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lysosomes
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contain digestive enzymes. functions include protection against disease and production of nutrients
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peroxisomes
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absorb and nutralize toxins in the liver such as alcohol
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structural hierarchy of cells in the body
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Cells make tissue, tissues make organs,organs make organ systems,organ systems make organisms
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cells become specialized through a process called
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differenation or maturation
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muscle cells perform what function
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movement
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nerve cells perform what function
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conductivity, transmits an electrical inpulse in response to a stimulus
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function of cells in the intestines and kidneys
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metabolic absorbtion, take in nutrients as they pass through
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cells in the glands peroform
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secreation of substances such as hormones, mucus,sweat, and saliva
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excretion is performed by which cells
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all cells as they breakdown nutrients and expel waste
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respiration
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a function by which cells take in oxygen
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reproduction
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process by which cells enlarge, divide, and reproduce themselves, replacing dead cells and enabling new tissue growth and healing of wounds
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whcih cells cannot reproduce
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nerve cells
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tissue
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a group of cells that perform a similar function
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four basic types of tissue
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epithealial
muscle connective nerve |
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epithealial tissue
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lines internal and external body surfaces and protects the body. special types perform secreation, absorbtion, diffusion and filteration. ex. skin, mucus membrane, and lining of intestinal tract
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muscle tissue
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3 types, all have capability of contracting when stimulated.
Cardiac - found only within the heart, can spontaneously contract without external stimulation Smooth- muscle found within the intestines and encircling blood vessels. Under control of the autonomic nervous sytem skeletal - most abundant muscle tissue, allows movement and is under mostly voluntary control |
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connective tissue
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most abundant tissue in the body
provides support, connection, and insulation. ex. bones, cartilage, and fat |
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nerve tissue
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transmits electrical impulses throughout the body. ex. brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves
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organ
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a group of tissue functioning together
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organ system
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group of organs working together
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different organ systems
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cardiovascular
respiratory gastrointestinal genitourinary reproductive nervous endocrine lymphatic muscular skeletal |
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cardiovascular system compontents and function
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transports nutrients and other essential elements to all parts of the body via heart, blood vessels, and blood
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respiratory system components and function
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provides oxygen to the body and removes carbon dioxide and other waste. consists of lungs and associated structures
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gastrointestinal system
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takes in complex nutrients and breaks them down into a form that can be readily used by the body and eliminates excess waste.
consists of the mouth, salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, intestines,liver, pancreas, gallbladder, rectum, anus |
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genitourinary system
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regulates water, electrolytes, blood pressure by elimination of various waste products.
consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra |
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reproductive system
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reproduction of the organism.
females - ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, and vagina males- testes, prostate, seminal vesicles, vas deferens, and penis |
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nervous system
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controls virtually all body functions and is the seat of human intellect, awarness, and personality
consists of brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves |
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endocrine system
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releases chemical messengers called hormones
consists of the pituitary glands, pineal glands, pancreas, testes, ovaries, adrenal glands, thyroid glands, and parathyroid glands |
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lymphatic system
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fights disease by filtering and removing waste products of cellular metabolism
consists of spleen,lymph nodes, lymphatic channel, thoracic duct, and lymph fluid |
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muscular system
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movement, posture, and heat production
consists of the skeletal muscle |
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skeletal system
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support, protection, and movement. Bone marrow is site for production of red and certain white blood cells\
consists of all the bones, cartilage and assoiated connective tissue |
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organism
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sum of all tissues, organs, and organ systems
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homeostasis
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the natural tendency of the body to maintain a steady and normal internal enviroment
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metabolsim
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building up and breaking down of biochemical substances to produce energy
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anabolsim
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building up
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catabolism
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breaking down
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communication between cells consists of
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electrochemical messages
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endocrine glands(ductless glands)
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secrete hormones directly into the circulatory system where they target organs or tissue
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exocrine glands
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secrete substances such as sweat, saliva, mucus, and disgestive enzymes onto the body's epithelial surfaces via ducts
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endocrine signaling
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hormones distributed throughout the body
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paracrine signaling
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secretion of chemical mediators by certain cells that act only on nearby cells
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autocrine signaling
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cells secrete substances that may act on themselves
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synaptic signaling
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cells secrete specialized chemicals called neurotranismitters, such as norepinephrine, acetycholine, serotonin, and dopamine, that transmit signals across synapses(the junction between neurons)
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chemoreceptors
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respond to chemical stimuli.
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chemoreceptors wthin the brain respond to evels of CO2 within the CSF, stimulating respiratory centers in the brainstem to increase rate and depth of respirations
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baroreceptors
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respond to pressure changes
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baroreceptors in the arch of the aorta and in the carotid sinus along the carotid artery sense changes in blood pressure ,which then causes cardiac centers in the medulla to alter heart rate
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alpha and beta adrenergic receptors
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respond to neurotransmitters and medications
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on the surface of cells in the bronchi, heart, and blood vessels cause a variety of cardiovascular and respiratory responses
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local effects of diease
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specific site of illness of injury
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systemic effects of disease
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response to injury or illness throughout the body
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input
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information recieved from one body system by another
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output
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response of a system to an input
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effector
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the system creating the output to the input
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negative feedback loop
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body mechanisms that work to reverse, or compensate for, a pathophysiological process(or to reverse and physiological process, whether pathological or nonpathological)
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when the output corrects the input with the response of the effector system
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decompensation
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when the output of effector organs cannot correct the input
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positive feedback loop
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works in conjuction with the neg. feedback loop to not overcompensate
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2 systems that work together to maintain homeostasis
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endocrine and nervous system
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Nervous system is a fast but short lived response
Endocrine system is a slower but reaction time but longer duration of effectivness |
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total body water
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total amount of water in the body at any given time
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intracellular fluid
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fluid inside the body's cells
75% |
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extracellular fluid
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fluid outside the bodys cells
consists of intravascular and interstitial fluids 25% |
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intravascular fluid
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fluid within the circulatory system
7.5% |
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interstitial fluid
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fluid inside the bodys tissues that is outside of the cells and vascular system
17.5% |
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water accounts for approximately what percent of total body weight
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60%
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infants TBW
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75-80%
more water because of less fat and high rates of metabolism |
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adult male TBW
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65-70%
more then female because of greather muscle mass |
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adult female TBW
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60-65%
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elderly TBW
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45-55%
the body begins to loose muscle and gain fat |
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universal solvent
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water
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solvent
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a substances that disolves other substances forming a solution
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intake
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water coming into the body
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output
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water leaving the body
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input and output must be relatively equal to maintain
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homeostasis
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dehydration
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excess loss of body fluid
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causes of dehydration
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vomiting
diarrhea perspiration peritonitis( malnutrition burns open wounds |
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signs of dehydration
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dry mucus membrane
poor skin turgor excess thirst more severe signs increase pulse rate decrease blood pressure orthostatic hypotension |
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electrolyte
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substance that in water seperates into electrically charged particles
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dissociate
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seperate or breakdown
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ion
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a charged particle
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cation
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ion with a positive charge
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anion
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ion with negative charge
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sodium
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most prevelent cation in the extracellular fluid
plays a major role in regulating the distrabution of water because water is attracted to and moves with it important in the transmission of nerve impulses |
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hypernatremia
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abnormal increase in amount of sodium in the body
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hyponatremia
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abnormal decrease in amount of sodium in the body
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potassium
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most prevelent cation in the intracellular fluid
important in the transmission of electrical impulses |
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hyperkalemia
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high potassium levels
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hypokalemia
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low potassium levels
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calcium
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major roles in muscle contraction and nervous impulse transmission
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hypercalcemia
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high levels of calcium
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hypocalcemia
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low levels of calcium
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magnesium
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nessesary for several biochemical processes that occur in the body
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hypermagnesemia
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high levels of magnesium
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hypomegnesemia
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low levels of magnesium
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4 most prevelent cations
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sodium
potassiun calcium magnesium |
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most prevelent anions
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chrloride
bicarbonate phosphate |
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chloride
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plays a major role in fluid balance and renal function
balances the positive charges with cations |
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biarbonate
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principal buffer of the body
neutralizes highly acidic hydrogen ions and other organic acids |
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phosphate
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important in energy stores
acts as a buffer in the intracellular space |
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nonelectrolytes
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molecules such as glucose, urea, proteins, and similar substances that do not dissociate in to ions
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isotonic
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equal in concentration of solute molecules
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hypertonic
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having a greather concentration of solute molecules
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hypotonic
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having a lesser concentration of solute molecules
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osmotic gradient
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the difference in concentration between solutions on opposite sides of a semipermeable membrane
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diffusion
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the movement of molecules through a membrane from an area of greater concentration of a area of lesser concentration and does not require energy
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osmosis
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movement of water from an area of higher water concentration to a lower one
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active transport
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movement of a substance from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration
faster than diffusion but requires energy |
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sodium potassium pump
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more positively charged sodium ions are pumped out of the myocardium then positively charged potassium ions are pumped in to created that negatively charged atmosphere the myocradium requires
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faciliated diffusion
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requires the assistance of a helper protein to diffuse certain substances such as diffusion across the membrane
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osmotic pressure
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the pressure exerted by the concentration of solutes on one side of a membrane that, ip hypertonic, tend to pull water from other side of membrane
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oncotic force
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a form of osmotic pressure excerted by the large protein particles present in the blood plasma.
in the capillaries the large proteins tend to pull water across the capillary membrane into the capillaries |
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hydrostatic pressure
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blood pressure or force against vessel walls created by the heart beat. Hydrostatic pressure tends to force water out of the capillaries into the interstitial space.
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filteration
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movement of water out of the plasma across the capillary membrane into the interstitial space
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net filteration
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total loss of water from blood plasma across the capillary membrane into the intersitial space
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pH scale
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abbrevation for potential of hydrogen
a measure of alkalinity or acidity |
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greather the hydrogen ions
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lower the pH
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lower the hydrogen ions
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higher the pH
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normal pH in the human body
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7.35-7.45
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neutral pH
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7
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acidosis
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pH below 7.35
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alkalosis
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pH above 7.45
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a variation of how much can can be fatal on the pH scale
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0.4
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the body is constantly producing _________ through metabolism and other biochemical processes
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hydrogen ions
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to maintain a acid base balance what must be constantly eiminated from the body?
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hydrogen ions
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three mechanisms of hydrogen ion removal
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bicarbonate buffer system
respiration kidney function |
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2 components of the bicarbonate buffer system
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bicarbonate ions
carbonic acid |
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to make the body more acidotic the bicarbonate buffer system will
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combined bicarbonate ions with hydrogen ions to form carbonic acid
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to make to body more alkalitic the bicarbonate buffer system will
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dissociate carbonic acid into hydrogen and bicarbonate ions
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for every molecule of carbonic acid there are
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20 molecules of bicarbonate ion
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carbonic acid
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better tolerated by the body then hydrogen ions
can be dissociated into carbon dioxide and water |
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the skin is comprised of what layers
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epidermis
dermis subcutaneous |
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epidermis
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outmost layer of the skin and is comprised of dead and dying cells
contains no vasculature protects the skin from harmful effects of ultraviolet radiation |
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sebum
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a waxy substance that lubricates the surface of the epidermis
keeps the skin flexible, storng, and resistant to penetration |
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dermis
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directly below the epidermis
a connective tissue that helps contain the body and supports the functions of the epidermis contains blood vessels, nerve endings, glands, and other structures |
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sudoriferous glands
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glands in the dermis that secrete sweat
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subcutaneous tissue
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layer of skin beneath the dermis
made up of rish adipose tissue releases heat three times more slwoly then muscles or tother layers of the skin absorbs forces of trauma |
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body directs blood _______ the subcutaneous tissue to conserve heat
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below
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body directs blood ______ the subcutaneous tissue to radiate it
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above
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two types of hair
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vellus
terminal |
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nails
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found at the most distal end of fingers and toes and are primarily for protection
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hematopoietic system consists of
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blood(cells and plasma)
bone marrow the liver the spleen the kidneys |
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the hematopoietic system
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body system having to do with the production and development of blood cells
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6 percent of body weight is
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blood
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erythropoitein
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hormone responsible for red blood cell production
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hematopoiesis
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the process through which pluripotent stem cell differentiate into various types of blood cells
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pluripotent stem cell
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a cell from which various types of blood cells can form
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major determinates of blood volume
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red blood cell mass
plasma volume |
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changes to red blood cell mass
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red blood cells remain confined to the vasculature and can only loss volume is production is haltered or destruction demineshes
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changes to plasma volume
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plasma can shift between intravascular and extravascular space
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healthy individuals can compensate for how much blood loss
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25-30%
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decompenstated shock
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when the body cant compenstae for loss of blood volume anymore
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compontents of blood
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plasma
red blood cells white blood cells platlets |
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plasma
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thick pale yellow fluid
90-92% water 6-7%proteins 2-3% fats, carbohydrates, electrolytes, gases, and chemical messengers transports cellular componts of blood and dissolved nutrients throughout the body plasma also transports waste products of cellular metabolsim to the liver, kidneys, and lungs for removal |
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red blood cells
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also called erythrocyte
does not have a nucleus when mature |
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hemoglobin
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oxygen bearing molecule in the red blood cells. it is made up of a iron rich red pigment call heme and a protein called globin
each hemoglobin contain four subunits of hemo each binded to a globin each globin subunit can bind to one molecule of oxygen allowing every hemoglobin molecule to carry up to four oxygen molecules making it 100% saturated with up to 1.34 mL of oxygen |
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oxygen transport factors
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reb blood cell mass
partial pressure of oxygen partial presure of carbon dioxide |
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the lower the pH the hemoglobins affinty for oxygen
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decreases
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the more alkalosis the hemoglobin, the affinty for oxygen
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increases
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bohr effect
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decrease in PCO2/acdiity causes in increase in the quantity of oxygen that binds ot hemoglobin and vice versa
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decrease in body temp has what effect of hemoglobins affinty for oxygen
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increase
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increase in body temp has what effect on hemoglobins affinity for oxygen
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decreases
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erythropoiesis
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process of producing red blood cells
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erythropoietin
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hormone produced by the kindey that stimulates bone marrow to produce erythrocytes
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life of red blood cells
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120 days
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hemolysis
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destruction of rbc's
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sequestration
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trapping of red blood cells by an organ
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leukocyte
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white blood cell
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leukocytes function in the body
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circulate the blood stream and tissues, providing protection from foreign invaders
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chemotaxis
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the movement of white blood cells in respond to chemical signaling
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phagocytosis
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process in which white blood cells engulf and destroy the invader
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leukopoiesis
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the process through which stem cells differentiate into white blood cells mature forms
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healthy people have how many white blood cells
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5,000-9,000
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an increase in white blood cells can indicate what
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bacterial infection
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what blood cells are catorgized into 3 types
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granulocytes
monocytes lymphocytes |
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3 types of granulocytes
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basophils
eosinophils neutrophils |
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basophils respond to
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allergic stimulus
the cells degranulate releasing histamines that cause vasodilation, broncoconstriction, increased vascular permeability and increased neutrophil and eosinophil chemotaxis |
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eosinophils
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type of granulocyte that can incativate the chemical mediators of acute allergic reations
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neutrophils
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type of granulocyte thats primary function is to fight infection
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neutropenia
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low count of neutrophils can be caused by bone marrow disorders, overwhelming infection, viral syndrome, autoimmune disease, drugs, and nutritional deficiencies
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monocytes
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engulf both foreign envader and dead neutrophils
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lympocytes
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primary cell involved in bodys immune response
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t cells
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1 of 2 basic lymphocytes
mature in the thymus gland then migrate throughout the body |
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cell mediated immunity
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antigens activates t-cells which develope effector cells which are responsible for hypersensitvity reactions, tumor suppression, graft rejections, and defense against intracellular organisms
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humoral immunity
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b-cells produce a memory cell that remembers that infection to fight it better enxt time
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autoimmune disease
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condition in which body makes antibodies against its own tissues
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inflammatory response
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a nonspecific defense mechanism that wards off damage from microorganisms or trauma by attempting to localize the damage while destroying the source
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thrombocyte
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blood platelet
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hemostasis
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the combined mechanisms that work to preven tor control blood loss
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thrombocytooenia
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to few platlets leading to bleeding problems and blood loss
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thrombocytosis
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to many platlets may caue abdnormal clotting, plugs int he vessels, and emboli that may travel to the heart, lungs, brain, or extremities
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platelets life span
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7 to 10 days and are removed form circulation by the spleen
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components of hemostasis
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vascular spasms
platelet plugs stable fibrin blood clots |
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tunica media
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smooth muscle fibers in the blood vessel innermost walls
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thrombosis
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clot formation which is extremly damgerous when it occurs in the coronary arteries or cerebral vasculature
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fibrinolysis
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the process thorugh which plasmin dismantles a blood clot
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functions of the skeleton
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gives the body structure
protects vital organs allows for efficient movement stores salts and other minerials for metabolism produces red blood cells |
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haversian canals
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small perforations of the long bones through which the blood vessels and berves travel into the bone
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osteocyte
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bone forming cell found in the bone matrix that helps mainain bone
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osteoblast
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cell that helps the creation of new bone during growth and repair
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osteoclast
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bone cell that absorbs and removes excess bone
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perforating canals
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structures through which blood vessels enter and exit the bone shaft
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devascularization
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loss of blood vessels from a body part
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diaphysis
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hollow shaft found in long bones
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epiphysis
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end of long bone including the growth plate
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cancellous
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spongy tissue of a bone
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articular surface
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surface of a bone that moves against another bone
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metaphysis
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growth zone of a bone, located between the epiphysis and diaphysis
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epiphyseal plate
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area of the metaphysis where cartilage is generated during bone growth in childhood
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medullary canal
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cavity within the bone that contains the marrow
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yellow bone marrow
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tissue that stores fat in semiliquid form within the internal cavities of a bone
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red bone marrow
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tissue within the internal cavity of a bone responsible for manurfacture of erythrocytes and other blood cells
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periosteum
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tough exterior covering of a bone
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cartilage
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connective tissue providing articular surfaces of the skeletal system
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synarthrosis
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immovable joint
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amphiarthrosis
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limited amount of movement
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diarthrosis
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great degree of independent motion
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bursae
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sacs containing synovial fluid that cushion adjacent structures
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axial skeleton
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bones of the head, thorax, and spine
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appendicular skeleton
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bones of the extremities, shoulder girdle and pelvis
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