Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
20 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
Culture and Personality |
- Benedict, Mead, Kardiner --> all examined how humans acquire culture, and cultures relationship to personality/human nature
- influenced by Gestalt psych (Mead, Benedict? personality as interrelated psych pattern, not collection of sep events) AND Freudian psych (Kardiner - psychoanalysis, innate and universal unconscious impulses)
- generally ahistorical (don't focus much on history - despite influence by Boas)
- Mead and Benedict trying to move a bit beyond focus on one group of people in historical particularism |
|
|
Ruth Fulton Benedict (1887 - 1948) |
- influenced by Gestalt psych (personality as interrelated psych pattern, not collection of sep events)
- PERSONAL: creative, socially isolated - > anthro as intellectual creative outlet to explore this isolation
- little fieldwork herself (Zuni), but relied heavily on the work of those she trusted (not what but WHO?)
- Kroeber introduced her to the Gestalt configurationalism
- focused on a UNIFYING theme of a psychological concept of personality (HOLISM)
- culture as personality writ large, societies choose cultures from range of human variability, but not concerned with WHY they choose what they do - lack of concern for historical context ---> for e.g., doesn't explain why they don't have torture, just stands that this lack is an aspect of their culture and culture is an independent force creating itself
- LOOKED AT RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CULTURE AND INDIVIDUAL PERSONALITY
- spoke with Boas, very culturally relative
- each culture has a unique pattern (cultural configuration) that determines the fundamental personality characteristics of its members
- focuses on INTERPRETATIONS over ACTIONS (shows how same actions between pueblos and neighbors, but their interpretations of these actions are different and this is whats significant) ---> people may accept certain cult. traits from others, but they MOLD and BEND them to fit the psychological type of their area
- criticized for ignoring aspects of culture that didnt fit her config. model |
|
|
Margaret Mead (1901-1978) |
- TONS of fieldwork, sent to Samoa by Boas to see if Freud's claims were too West-bound, and show his psych dev theories were NOT universal ---> showing that ADOLESCENCE = CULTURAL, looks for cultural explanations of human behavior, denies race effecting culture, and denies common humanity explaining diversity of culture forms
- influenced by Gestalt (holism) and discredits Freudian psych (cult. institutions reflect innate, unconscious universal impulses)
- interested in effect of early childhood influences on adult personality and behavior
- student of Boas
- agreed with Benedict's cult. config, wanted to find WHAT CAUSES lead to a cultures config. -> research largely attempts to separate biological and cultural factors controlling personality and behavior ----> said CULTURE is the primary factor determining experience as adolescence and social/behavioral characteristics of adults
discredits PSYCHS who say that the psych. dev of adolescence in USA is biologically inevitable, says it is a cultural phenomena
- says cant predict future based on current state - cult relativistic |
|
|
Abram Kardiner (1891-1981) |
- psychoanalyst, influenced by Freud - interested in cross-cultural research - primary institutions consolidate and form the basis for projective use in adulthood
- wanted to create universally applicable laws to understand how culture influences the development of personality
PERSONAL MEDIATION THEORY-> - proposed basic personality structure - collection of fundamental personality traits shared by normal members of society ---->HYPOTHESIS: foundations for personality development are set in early childhood (childrearing procedures) called PRIMARY INSTITUTIONS - generally standardized so ALL members of society are subjected to the same basic influences on personality development
PRIMARY institutions lead to formation of BPS, Personality influences culture via creating SECONDARY INSTITUTIONS (cultural institutions like religion, created to satisfy needs of personality via psychological mechanism of PROJECTION)
THUS: Primary instits-> BPS -> Secondary instits
- weakness: BPS doesn't account for individual variation, so DuBois responded with Modal Personality
- Largely credited with detaching Freudian psychology from its base in Western culture and its theoretical emphasis on the sex drive
- Kardiner emphasized the importance of personal adaptation over drives as a basis from which to approach psychodynamics |
|
|
Modal Personality |
- Cora DuBois' response to Kardiners BPS - the personality type statistically most common in a society -> primary instits lead to forming basic set of personality characteristics, but there is individ variation within this on how exactly those personalities developed/were expressed
|
|
|
Digger Myth |
- Benedict's explanation for the origin of culture and the patterns in culture
- "God gave to every people a cup of clay, and from this they drank their life. They all dipped in the water but their cups were different"
- People are all given cups and dip them into the water of life |
|
|
Julian Steward (1902 - 1972) |
- ecological approach focused on adaptation of individual cultures to specific environmental circumstances
-->multilineal evolution- adaptation, many possibilities of cultures
- proposed that cultures in similar environments tend to follow the same development sequences and formulate similar responses to their environmental challenges
- cultures do not follow a single universal sequence of development, they evolve in any number of distinct patterns depending on environmental circumstances (didn't focus on general, overall patterns, believed in evolution as SPECIFIC and RELATIVISTIC -> societies core features as adaptations to THEIR environment)
- creates field of cultural ecology to study what he considers this multilineal evolution
- prep school Deep Springs influenced him in how local native communities survive in such harsh environments
- student of Kroeber, who didn't appreciate Stewards interest in the causes of cultural traits (Kroeber doesn't think these should be a concern of anthro)
- believed in cultural and historical factors over biological ones, but not alone sufficient
|
|
|
Leslie White (1900 - 1975) |
- formulated general evolutionary theory of culture
- universal evolution - Culture in singular, progress or not
- believed in evolution as a general overall pattern of technological development -> cultural progress can be measured by ABSOLUTE standards rankable on a universal scale ----> revolutionary changes in development are the key forces in cultural evolution
- defended Morgan's belief that cross-cult studies show cultural evolution in a direction of increasing complexity (only failed to develop non-ethnocentric, scientific ways to assess this complexity) -----> thus he attempted to fix this by developing a quantifiable, universal standard of measurement for complexity (WHICH HE CLAIMS IS A CULTURES ABILITY TO CONTROL ENERGY)
- evolutionary stages should be traced by changes in TECHNOLOGY
- culture is the means by which humans adapted to nature, as members of society learned to capture energy, they were able to make lives more secure and culture advanced
- cultural anthropology as a NATURAL SCIENCE; implies culture is superorganic (like Kroeber) and therefore as humans are a constant (they cannot be removed/isolated from the picture) he discredits any human factor. He states culture functions to serve needs of man (like Malinowski), and as human=constant, discredits race as having any role ---> ALSO REMOVES SPECIFIC ENVIRONMENT FROM STUDY [unlike Steward]
- universal law of cultural evolution = culture advances as the amount of energy per capita per year increases, or as the efficiency with which energy is used increases --- E x T = P (E = energy expended / capita / time unit ; T= efficiency of technology doing expending P = product - cult development) ----> change occurs with an increased energy source, so you need more energy to create more change, yet he sees culture as a self-contained entity ----> if you change E or T, huge jump in cultural change, as people want/need to produce more, create more technology and at the same time that technology can be used to create more energy
-said culturology as opposed to anthropology, believed in it being a science and that culture obeys own laws, independent of individual psychology or human biology
- INFLUENCED BY MARX: culture is separated in 2 analytical levels: 1) technological 2) sociological 3) ideological --> all social institutions effect the evolution of culture, but TECHNOLOGY plays the primary role |
|
|
Cultural Core |
- proposed by Steward - cultural features most closely associated with subsistence practices - social, political, religious patterns THAT USE ENVIRONMENT IN CULTURALLY PRESCRIBED WAYS - cultures with similar core features are part of the same CULTURE TYPE, which he compared and made into a hierarchy by complexity --> family, multifamily, state-level societies - secondary features also exist where less tied to core, determined by diffusionism and random innovation, give appearance of difference from even those with the same core- DECEIVING
- triangle model, environ at base, techno-economic (tools for production, consumption), then socio-political (politics, social structure), then ideological (religion, belief, legal system, etc)
|
|
|
Cultural Ecology |
- created by Steward to study the multilineal evolution path he believed
= examination of the cultural adaptations formulated by human beings to meet the challenges posed by their environments
- trying to explain the origin of cultural features, not deriving universal laws that can be applied to cultural/environmental situations |
|
|
Roy Rappaport |
- contributed to ecological anthropology
- influenced by general systems theory
- writes of people as "biological organisms" clearly trying to analyze human behavior like how biologists study animal behavior
- believed even though culture separates humans from animals, as biological organisms humans follow the same fundamental laws as animals (therefore he frequently draws comparisons between the two)
- differentiates between cognized environment - how the peoples culture understands nature (Tsembaga, spirits of ancestors) - EMIC versus operational environment - how the anthropologist understands their culture (material environ specified by anthropologists through operations of observations like measurements) for Rapp on Tsembaga this is the life cycle of pigs - ETIC
- cybernetics influence -> concerned with environmental feedback to automatic devices (rumbim as switch that turns off hostilities) |
|
|
General Systems Theory |
- Rappaport was highly influenced by this
- way of providing a mathematical description of a physical system
- everything in the environment affects everything else, HOMEOSTATIC MODEL -> thermostat, turns on heat until reaches balance, then turns off and on accordingly to keep to right temp (homeostasis, that equilibrium)
- via "feedback"
- encouraged anthros to examine culture as systems composed of human AND nonhuman elements
- presumes that normal state of a system = equilibrium and describes the various methods that systems take to deviate from this equilibrium / return to it ---> RAPPAPORT DESCRIBES TSAMBAGA LIKE THIS, DISCUSSES THE ROLE OF RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AS MECHANISM THAT RETURN THE SYSTEM TO EQUILIBRIUM -> rituals = thermostat |
|
|
Sociobiology |
- wilson -> systematic study of the biological basis of all social behavior
- deal with altruism by stating opposed to organisms are PROGRAMMED to know genes have a maximal advantage when at perfect mix of personal survival, reproduction, and altruism ---> kin selection theory - two orgs sharing altruism gene, altruistic act by one org. increases the joint contribution of these genes to the next gen, so propensity to altruism spreads in gene pool
- STEPS TO BULD SOCIOBIO ARGUMENT: 1) describe some aspect of human behavior that seems to be universal and seek analogies from animals (SHOW HOW VARIES BUT OVERALL UNIVERSAL) such thing as war, we were genetically programmed to fight one another. this is aggressive, aggression is something shared with all organisms
2) Claim that what is universal to humans and animals arises from biology (naturalistic fallacy).
because it seems to be a human and animal universal, it is based on biology, and because it is based in biology, we have to accept it exists (NATURALISTIC FALLACY = because something happens in nature, it is right and acceptable)
3) Create logical explanation
EXAMPLE: Issue of why a man gives more attention to and works harder for his sisters children than his own biological children in a matrilineal society ---> sociobio = PARSIMONY - best explanation is always simplest/ most economic BUT THIS IS DIFFICULT WITH HUMANS BECAUSE OF CULTURE yet, sociobio says males/females have diff mating strategies because of biology -> COMPETING INTERESTS IN WHAT THEY NEED TO DO Males: best strategy is to get as many children as possible, as long as one survives to reproduce OK Females = quality over quantity, a single birth tasks 9 months, even if you get pregnant immediately after giving birth you can't give birth again until another year but most times fertility wont work until a few months later as a protective mechanism of body because so many births is taxing Paternity certainty → not a problem with mother, but there is with paternity certainty. Period of time prior to knowing shes pregnant when she could have multiple sexual partners. Sexist argument: THUS matter of percent of shared genes: Man to Sister (50%) → niece/nephew has 25% genetic material
in matrilineal societies, men not 100% positive that child is theirs, so will invest more time in their sisters child, who they KNOW has their genetic material, rather than with one who is uncertain Man to Wife (0%) → son/daughter has 50% genetic material IF he is the father |
|
|
E. O. Wilson |
- viewed social behavior as controlled by particular genes, evolutionary selection starts at gene level, HUMANS ARE JUST VEHICLES GENES USE TO REPRODUCE SELVES
- genes affect disposition affects behavior
- violates Boas in 3 ways: 1) ignores effects of culture and learning 2) only researched animals and insects, cant apply to humans 3) no conclusive link found that connects a specific gene and a specific behavior in normal people, so how can genes be selected if no specific behavior is behind them
- felt sociobiology will make all social sciences and humanities obsolete
- completely opposite to cultural anthro expectations as saying that behavior grounded in universal human genetics contradicts the entire basis of cultures influence on human social life
- focused on research of ants, wrote nonfiction books, loved to cause controversy, influence on Bird article
- all organisms are programmed to get as much of their genetic material from one generation to the next
|
|
|
Evolutionary Psychology |
- analysis of the mind as a device formed by natural selection
- believe each neural circuit in our brains designed by nat selection for adapting to foraging |
|
|
Human Behavioral Ecology |
- integrates earlier cultural ecology with recent understandings of biological ecology - emphasizes populations rather than cultures - tests hypothesis that culturally patterned traits actually enhance fitness rather than focusing on the mind - bird et al. is example of this - focuses on observing, analyzing human behavior as you would animals
|
|
|
Marshall Sahlins |
- criticized Wilson's sociobiology
- Studied with Leslie White, heavily influenced by Julian Steward (theory of cultural ecology), became friendly with Levi-Strauss (structuralism)
- believes no necessary relation between cultural character of an act and a persons motivations for participating in it -> THERE IS NO NECESSARY RELATION BETWEEN THE PHENOMENAL FORM OF A SOCIAL INSTITUTION AND THE INDIVIDUALS MOTIVATIONS REALIZED WITHIN THAT PHENOMENA (this is an issue he found with Malinowski, Sociobiologists, AND culture & personality schools) -E.G., warfare and aggression, people fight out of love, fear, honor, because drafted, not jUST aggression
variety in human behavior results from culture- CULTURE is the primary adaptation
- sociobiology is too REDUCTIONIST (simplicity of sociobio is interrupted by complexity of culture)
- environment effects behavior and this cannot be ignored
- Sociobiology removes us from any need for moral standing (do what we do just to promote genetic fitness, OK to bomb, rape)
- influenced by Durkheim "social facts", actions not valued by correspondence to own disposition but to the cultural context -> atruism doesn't always equal generosity (spanking kids) |
|
|
Bird et al. |
- human behavioral ecology
- signaling = when a person signals to others that they have abilities and qualities that they want others to view, benefits the signaler
- costly signaling theory as effort to explain where optimal foraging theory fails (that human foragers choose food with maximal energy return for minimal energy investment) ---> economically irrational to share food when not all hunters are equally as good/contributing, better hunters sacrifice more than they are compensated
- describes using PHENOTYPE - shows behavior rooted in bio, not culture
- turtle hunting COSTLY (increased opportunity costs as pass up opportunities that might have better return rate - shellfish; low consumption return rate as share; high energy, money and time investment as have to prep the hunt (cost) ------> YET DO THIS A LOT BECAUSE bringing turtle to feast is more valuable, more people see it; better hunters do this because they can get a turtle whenever, so signaling its not a big deal
- don't really TALK to people, just take tests and statistics, don't actually ask what the benefits are or what people want in a mate Steward would feel this is too focused on genetics and not enough on culture -> TOO REDUCTIONIST |
|
|
Costly Signaling Theory |
- explains persistence of wasteful traits despite nat selection, and the evolution of honest communication despite conflicts of interest ( WHY DESPITE NAT SEL PPL ARE ECONOMICALLY IRRATIONAL, AND WHY DONT LIE WHEN MORE BENEFICIAL TO )
- signals are costly when they don't directly benefit the individuals, but instead directly benefits the receivers
- yet done because contributing to the community or audience as a whole the individual may indirectly benefit through future reciprocity ---> people believe this because too much cost to be dishonest and send false signals
- hunters pursue prey not because nutrition, because it demonstrates ability to undertake difficult tasks successfully and tells potential mates, political partners, etc. they are desirable
SYSTEM WORKS BECAUSE IT IS SO COSTLY -> although it can be faked, cost of faking is so high in terms of time/energy expended that good achieved is not worth costs
- CST can explain things otherwise economically inefficient, though not the ONLY reason ---> explains "wasteful" foraging and any behavior in which higher quality people get higher marginal benefits because THEY CAN ABSORB THE COST BETTER AND WHERE ITS EFFICIENCY IS BROADCASTED TO THE PROPER OBSERVERS |
|
|
Ecologist - Materialism |
- one type of cultural materialism - influenced by cybernetics, general systems theory, and ecology - assumed societies are homeostatic (cultural institutions function as feedback mechanisms to maintain balance between energy production and expenditure and productive capacity) |
