Test 5 Special Senses & Autonomic

Front 1

define proprioreceptors

Back 1

special senses located within body muscles, joints, or bones.

Front 2

What is the mechanoreceptor for hearing?

Back 2

Organ of Corti (hair cells)
in the cochlea
detects vibration
inner ear

Front 3

What are the mechanoreceptors for balance in the inner ear?

Back 3

maculae and cristae (hair cells)
in the vestibular apparatus
detects deflection
inner ear

Front 4

Olfactory cells and gustatory cells are what kind of receptors?

Back 4

chemoreceptors.

in superior nasal cavity
dorsum of tongue and pharynx

Front 5

Name the three layers of the wall of the eye.

Back 5

1. outer: sclera & cornea: tough fibrous

2 middle: choroid - iris - ciliary body: highly vascular

3. retina - contain light receptors

Front 6

Describe the fluid fill cavities of the eye.

Back 6

Anterior Cavity: has anterior chamber (bt the iris and cornea) AND posterior chamber (bt the iris and lens)
- both have watery aqueous humor.

Front 7

Describe the location and fill of the posterior CAVITY of the eye

Back 7

between the lens and retina
contains jelly vitreous humor

Front 8

What two layers of smooth muscle control the iris?

Back 8

sphincter muscles: constrict pupil
and
dilator muscles: makes pupil larger

Front 9

What is the "white" of the eye?

Back 9

the visible portion of the sclera.

Front 10

What is the function of the cornea?

Back 10

Refracts light
helps focus light onto the retina.

Front 11

What is the function of the sclera?

Back 11

Maintains shape of eye
Protects eye
Site of muscle attachment

Front 12

What is the function of the iris?

Back 12

Controls the amount of light passing through the pupil.

Front 13

What is the function of the ciliary body?

Back 13

Changes shape of lens aka accommodation
Secretes aqueous humor.

Front 14

What is the function of the choroid?

Back 14

Absorbs light
Contains blood vessels for eye structures.

Front 15

What is the function of the retina?

Back 15

Absorbs light & stores vitamin A
Detects light & forms image for transmission to brain.

Front 16

What is the function of lens?

Back 16

Refracts light
Important in accommodation (changing shape of lens)

Front 17

What is the function of anterior cavity?

Back 17

Maintains shape of eye
Refracts light through vitreous humor.

Front 18

What is the function of posterior cavity?

Back 18

Maintains shape of eye
Refracts light through aqueous humor

Front 19

What is the function of aqueous humor?

Back 19

Fills anterior cavity.
Helps maintain shape of eye
Refracts light
Maintains intraocular pressure

Front 20

What is the function of vitreous humor?

Back 20

Fills posterior cavity
Maintains intraocular pressure
Shapes eye.
Keeps retina firmly pressed against choroid.
Refracts light.

Front 21

Describe the two layers of the retina.

Back 21

1. outer pigmented layer, adheres to choroid.
2. inner layer of nerve tissue (the retina proper)

Front 22

Describe the three layers of the retina's nerve tissue.

Back 22

1. Receptor neurons (closest to choroid) 100 million rods, 700 million cones.
2. Bipolar neuron layer
3. Ganglionic neurons attach directly to the optic nerve.

Front 23

Describe "rod" vision

Back 23

Dim light.
Form outlines or silhouettes of objects.
Twilight vision.

Front 24

Describe "cone" vision

Back 24

most accurate if light permits close, detailed vision.
Daylight vision.
Color and Detail.

Front 25

Describe the eye's fovea centralis

Back 25

Small indentation in center of retina.
Cones are most concentrated.
To see clearly, focus on fovea centralis.
Fewer cones as you move away.

Front 26

Where can you see movement and twilight vision most clearly?

Back 26

Periphery of retina, where rods are more concentrated.

Front 27

What is the visual pigment?

Back 27

Rhodopsin.
Derived from Vitamin A
Light energy causes changes in the shape of the protein.
Starts nerve impulses in bipolar and ganglion cell layers.

Front 28

What is accommodation?

Back 28

The process of light focusing based on lens elasticity.
Distant object - lens flattens
Close object - lens rounded (convex)
Ciliary muscle acts on suspensory ligaments to change lens shape. RELAXES to reduce tension, lens more convex.

Front 29

What parts of the eye refract light?

Back 29

lens
cornea
aqueous humor
vitreous humor
focus and converge on fovea centralis.

Front 30

Describe external visual field

Back 30

The area served by an eye.
Overlaps.
Allows 3D vision.

Front 31

What is strabismus?

Back 31

Cross eyes
see to images bc muscle movements of eye do not work together.

Front 32

What happens in nearsightedness?

Back 32

Rays focus in front of lens.
Need concave lens to correct.
Caused by elongation of eyeball or
Lens that does not adjust properly

Front 33

What happens in astigmatism?

Back 33

Rays do not focus on fovea.
Need an uneven lens in glasses to correct.
= the inability to separate two closely placed point.

Front 34

What is hyperopia?

Back 34

Farsightedness.
Image forms behind the retina.

Front 35

What is farsightedness?

Back 35

Image forms behind retina.
Eyeball is too short.
Lens too flat.
Happens w age as lens loses elasticity.

Front 36

What is colorblindness.

Back 36

Cones cannot react to certain colors.
Sex linked genetic trait, carried by females, expressed most often in males.

Front 37

What is the purpose of the ear?

Back 37

To gather sound waves and transmit them to nerve cells in the inner ear.
Cortex of temporal lobe.

Front 38

What are the parts of the external ear?

Back 38

Pinna (auricle)
External auditory canal & meatus.
Tympanic membrane (eardrum)

Front 39

What is the function of the external auditory canal?

Back 39

Amplifies & channels sound waves
A few hairs
Ceruminous (sweat) glands secretes earwax.
Prevent dust & foreign objects from entering ear.

Front 40

Name the parts of the middle ear?

Back 40

- small, air filled cavity
- Tympanic Membrane and Windows are the boundaries.
- Auditory Ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes)
- Tensor Tympani
- Eustachian Tube

Front 41

What is the function of the tympanic membrane?

Back 41

Eardrum
Vibrates
Transforms the sound energy into the mechanical energy

Front 42

Which CN supplies the tensor tympani?

Back 42

- CN V: trigeminal.
- limits movement of and
- increases tension on eardrum
- to prevent damage to inner ear from loud noises

Front 43

What is the function of the eustachian tube?

Back 43

- from middle ear to pharynx
- helps maintain air pressure on both sides of the eardrum.
- normally closed. opens when swallowing, yawning, allowing air to enter/leave middle ear. equal pressure.

Front 44

What causes otitis media?

Back 44

Ear infection.
- pathogens travel through eustachian tube from nose and throat to middle ear.

Front 45

Name the two major divisions of the inner ear

Back 45

1. Bony labrynth: vestibule, cochlea, semicircular canals.
2. Membranous labrynth

Front 46

Name the three channels in the cochlea.

Back 46

1. scala vestibuli
2. scala tympani
3. cochlear duct

Front 47

Where are the receptors for equilibrium located?

Back 47

Bony labyrinth
- semicircular canals
- vestibule

Front 48

Where are the receptors for hearing located?

Back 48

cochlea

Front 49

What is the membranous labyrinth?

Back 49

- contains endolymph
- series of epithelial sacs and tubes inside the bony labyrinth.
- high level of Potassium ions.

Front 50

What does the bony labyrinth contain?

Back 50

- contains perilymph.
- similar to Cerebrospinal Fluid
- surrounds the membranous labyrinth.

Front 51

What structures are in the vestibule?

Back 51

Vestibule is the oval central part of bony labyrinth.
- two sacs: utricle saccule.
- connected by small duct.

Front 52

What are vestibular ganglia?

Back 52

Cell bodies of sensory neurons of CN VIII - vestibulocochlear nerve.

Front 53

What is the helicotrema?

Back 53

Scala vestibuli (top - ends at oval window)
Scala tympani (bottom - ends at round window)
Cochlear duct (in middle)
At end of cochlea all join.
Perilymph around all.

Front 54

Describe the Organ of Corti

Back 54

aka spiral organ.
- coiled sheet of epithelial cells (supporting cells)
- 16,000 hair cells - receptors
- inner hair cells: single row
- outer hair cells: three rows
At tip of hair, are 40-80 stereocilia (microvilli) several rows of graded height.
- tectorial membrane covers
- bodies rest on basilar membrane

Front 55

Describe the tectorial membrane.

Back 55

tector=covering
- flexible, gelatinous membrane, covers the hair cells of the cochlea.

Front 56

Define pitch.

Back 56

Pitch = frequency. The number of air vibrations per unit of time. Cycles per second.
higher frequency = higher pitch.
humans: 100-5000 Hertz
1HZ=1cycle per second.

Front 57

Define Intensity

Back 57

intensity = amplitude
decibels dB
0 - 1000 HZ
uncomfortable at 120, painful at 140

Front 58

Define timbre

Back 58

timbre=quality. overtones vary with object producing the sound

Front 59

What is the role of the basement membrane?

Back 59

certain regions vibrate to certain sound waves. each segment is "tuned" for a particular pitch.
- narrow & stiff at window = high pitched sounds.

Front 60

What are the receptor organs for static equlibrium?

Back 60

Macula in saccule and utricle are perpendicular to each other
- position of head and
= linear acceleration & deceleration
- have supporting cells, hair cells & otolithic membrane (jelly) & otoliths (stones)

Front 61

What are the receptor organs for dynamic equilibrium?

Back 61

3 semicircular ducts (canals)
- detects rotational acceleration /decelearation
- ampulla has crista.
- each crista has supporting cells & hair cells.
- covering crista is cupula (jelly)
- hair cells move, endolymph lags behind.
- hair bends... produces AP VIII

Front 62

Where are the cell bodies of sensory neurons located for
a. hearing
b. equilibrium

Back 62

a. spiral ganglia
b. vestibular ganglia

Front 63

Describe symptoms and causes of
cataracts

Back 63

loss of transparency of lens.
caused by aging, UV rays, injury, meds (steroids), diabetes, smoking

Front 64

Describe symptoms and causes of
glaucoma

Back 64

High intraocular pressure due to buildup of aqueous humor in the anterior cavity.
- puts pressure on neurons of retina, eventually destroyed.. blind.
race, age, family history, injuries

Front 65

Describe symptoms and causes of
sensorineural deafness

Back 65

impairment of hair cells in cochlea or damage to VIII nerve.
- caused by atherosclerosis (reduces blood to ears), loud noise, drugs (aspirin, streptomycin)

Front 66

Describe symptoms and causes of
conduction deafness

Back 66

- can't transmit sounds.
otosclerosis (new bone forms around oval window), earwax, injury, aging (stiffens ossicles & thickens eardrum)

Front 67

Describe symptoms and causes of
Meniere's disease

Back 67

- Increased endolymph enlarges membranous labyrinth.
- vertigo, tinnitus, and fluctuating hearing loss (basilar membrane is distorted)

Front 68

Describe symptoms and causes of
otitis media

Back 68

- infection of middle ear
- bacteria from eustachian tube
- in children e. tube is horizontal.. decreases drainage.

Front 69

Describe taste buds.

Back 69

- located in tiny elevations - papillae
- sweet, sour, bitter, salty, umani
- individual taste cell is within the taste bud.

Front 70

Where are the tastes located on the tongue?

Back 70

back: bitter
lateral front: sour
lateral back: salt
front: sweet & salty
pharynx: umami

Front 71

CN for taste are?

Back 71

Facial
Glossopharyngeal.
medulla- thalamus-temporal lobe

Front 72

Describe visual convergence

Back 72

medial movement of the two eyeballs so that both are directed toward the object being viewed.
eg. pencil - crosseyed

Front 73

Describe the steps in visual transduction.

Back 73

1. photopigment absorbs light.
(rhodopsin in rods, three different forms for cones)
rhodopsin = opsin + retinal (vit.A)
retinal part absorbs light
2. isomerization (cis-to-trans)
3. bleaching - trans-retinal separates from opsin.
4. enzyme retinal isomerase converts trans-retinal back to cis-
5. regeneration. cis- can bind to opsin

Front 74

What is the neurotransmitter in the eye?

Back 74

glutamine

Front 75

What are the three types of tastebud papillae?

Back 75

1. Vallate papillae - 12 in V at back of tongue. each has 100-300 buds
2. Fungiform papillae: entire surface, have 5 taste buds each
3. Foliate papillae: small trenches on lateral margins. die in early childhood.
also 4. Filiform papillae: pointed, threadlike: for tactile reception and increase friction so food can move.

Front 76

What CN are involved in taste?
What is the pathway?

Back 76

VII Facial (front 2/3)
IX Glossopharyngeal (back 1/3)
X Vagus (buds in throat and epiglottis)
- to gustatory nucleus in medulla
- to limbic, hypothalamus, thalamus. from thalamus to parietal lobe.

Front 77

Describe the olfactory receptors.

Back 77

- 1st order, bipolar neuron.
- knob shaped dendrite
- axon goes through cribriform plate to olfactory bulb.
- olfactory hairs project from the dendrite.

Front 78

Besides the sensory neurons, what other cells are in the nose?

Back 78

- Supporting cells: columnar epithelial cells. support, nourishment, electrical insulation, detoxify chemicals.
- Basal cells: stem cells renew every month (nerve cells regenerating!)

Front 79

What are olfactory (Bowman's) glands?

Back 79

- produce mucus.. carried to surface by ducts.
- moistens surface and dissolves odorants so transduction can occur.

Front 80

What CN innervates olfactory cells?

Back 80

CN VII Facial

Front 81

What happens in the olfactory bulb?

Back 81

Axons of receptors synapse with dendrites/cell bodies of olfactory bulb neurons.

Front 82

What is unusual about the olfactory nerve pathway?

Back 82

DO NOT first synapse in thalamus.
- go to olfactory ares of cortex (inferior/medial temporal lobe)
- lymbic system & hypothalamus (emotions = smells)
- frontal lobe (id smells)

Front 83

What are steroid hormones?
Name some.

Back 83

- lipids made from cholesterol.
cortisol, cortisone
estrogen, progesterone
testosterone

Front 84

What are the four kinds of non-steroid hormones?
Give examples.

Back 84

1. Proteins: chains of aa
insulin, calcitonin (thyroid), pituitary hormones, somatotropin, prolactin
2. Peptides: shorter chains of aa
ADH and oxytocin
3. Amines: derived from aa
throxine (thyroid), nor-epi & epinephrine (adrenal)
4. glycoproteins: FSH, LH, TSH

Front 85

Describe the action of steroid hormones.

Back 85

- readily pass through cell membranes
- combine with proteins
- stimulate synthesis of proteins which cause chang

Front 86

Define hormone

Back 86

A molecule that is released in one part of the body but regulates the activity of cells in other parts of the body.
- bloodstream usually delivers.
- bind to receptors on target cells.
- some can be neurotransmitters & hormones (eg norepi)

Front 87

Name some exocrine glands

Back 87

- secrete products into ducts
sudoriferous (sweat) glands
subaceous (oil) glands
mucous
digestive glands

Front 88

Name the endocrine glands

Back 88

pituitary
thyroid
parathyroid
adrenal
pineal
also, hypothalamus, thymus, pancreas, ovaries, testes, kidneys stomach, liver, small intest, skin, heart, adipose tissue, placenta

Front 89

Lipid Soluble Hormones

Back 89

1. Steroid: from cholesterol

2. Thyroid: T3 and T4

3. NO nitric oxide (hormone & neurotransmitter)

Front 90

Water Soluble Hormones

Back 90

1. Amine Hormones
epi, norepi, dopamine, histamine, serotinin, melatonin

2. Peptide Hormones/Protein Hormones
ADH, oxytocin, Human Growth, insulin
3. Eicosanoid Hormones

Front 91

What does insulin do?

Back 91

Stimulates synthesis of glycogen in liver cells.

and synthesis of triglycerides in adipose cells.

Front 92

What are some responses to hormones?

Back 92

- synthesis of a new molecule (insulin)
- change the permeability of plasma membrane
- stimulate transport of a substance into or out of target cells.
- alter the rate of metabolic reactions
- cause contraction of smooth or cardiac muscle.

Front 93

Where are receptors for hormones located?

Back 93

- lipid soluble: inside target cells
- water soluble: plasma membrane

Front 94

What are first messenger, second messengers?

Back 94

Water solubile
binds to receptor on membrane = first messenger (G protein)
causes production of a second messenger inside the cell. A common 2nd messenger is cyclic AMP

Front 95

Water Soluble Hormone Process

Back 95

1. 1st mess. binds to membrane
2. G protein activates
3. adenylate cyclase
4. converts ATP into cAMP (2nd)
5. activates protein kinases - cause reactions.
6. cAMP inactivated by phospho di esterase

Front 96

List 3 factors that influence the responsiveness of a target cell to a hormone...

Back 96

1. hormone concentration
2. number of cell hormone receptors.
3. influences of other hormones.

Front 97

Synergistic effect

Back 97

When two hormones acting together have a greater effect than either acting alone.

Front 98

Antagonistic effect

Back 98

when one hormone opposes the action of another.
eg.
insulin: promotes synthesis of glycogen by liver cells.
glucagon: stimulates breakdown of glycogen in liver

Front 99

How are hormone secretions regulated (3)?

Back 99

1. signals from the nervous system.
2. chemical changes in the blood.
3. other hormones.
most are negative feedback cycles.
except oxycotin in childbirth.

Front 100

Adenohypophysis

Back 100

Anterior pituitary (75%)
control of ITS hormones is through
releasing hormones
inhibiting hormones
FROM the hypothalamus

Front 101

Neurohypophsis

Back 101

Posterior pituitary

Front 102

How do hypothalamic hormones reach the anterior pituitary?

Back 102

Through a PORTAL system.
two capillary beds with a vein between them. wo passing through the heart. ANTERIOR pituitary only.

Front 103

The hypothalamus is part of which system of the body?

Back 103

BOTH endocrine and nervous

Front 104

What does the anterior pituitary release?

Back 104

7 hormones
hGH (growth hormone)
TSh (thyroid stim hormone)
FSH (follicle stim hormone)
LH (luteinizing homone)
PRL (prolactin) - initiates milk
ACTH (adreno-cortoco-tropic) -
stim adrenal to produce cortisol
MSH (melanocyte stim hormone)

Front 105

How are anterior pituitary secretions controlled?

Back 105

1. hypothalamus secretes 5 releasing hormones AND 2 inhibiting hormones.

2. negative feedback from hormones released by target glands.

Front 106

Human Growth Hormone
hGH

Back 106

hGH most plentiful hormone
- increases mitosis
- prevents growth plates from closing
- stimulate metabolism
- stimulate growth of muscles & bones.
- repair
- lasts for whole life. receptors on almost all cells of body.

Front 107

What does excess hGH cause?

Back 107

- hyperglycemia...pancreas secretes insulin continuousy... may lead to burn out of cells and diabetes.
- giant: thick bones: acromegaly

Front 108

What does too little hGH cause?

Back 108

pituitary dwarf. normal proportions. tom thumb

Front 109

What controls hGH production?
(human growth hormone)
aka somatotropin

Back 109

Hypothalamus
1. GHRH - growth hormone releasing hormone - promotes
2. GHIH - growth hormone inhibiting hormone - supresses

THESE are regulated by blood glucose level.

Front 110

What is hypoglycemia and what does it cause?

Back 110

hypoglycemia: abnormally low blood glucose concentration.
- stimulates GHRH
- goes through portal veins
- hGH released
- blood glucose raised
- too high, inhibits release of GHRH

Front 111

ADH
antidiuretic hormone
(vasopressin)

Back 111

made by hypothalamus, stored in posterior pit.
- acts on kidney tubules.
- regulates reabsorption of water
- effects BP

Front 112

What disease is associated with under (hypo) secretion of ADH?

Back 112

Diabetes insipidus
excessive urine production,
excessive thirst

Front 113

Oxytocin

Back 113

made by hypothalamus,
stored in posterior pit
stimulates uterine contractions & milk secretion.

Front 114

TSH
thyroid stimulating hormone

Back 114

- anterior pituitary
- regulates development of thyroid gland.
- stimulates uptake of iodine
controls synthesis & release of thyroid hormones T3 & T4

Front 115

ACTH
adreno cortico tropic hormone

Back 115

- released by anterior pituitary
- target is cortex of adrenal gland
tissue growth
- increase of hormones called glucocorticoids.

Front 116

Prolactin

Back 116

- Anterior Pituitary
- acts on mammary glands. milk

Front 117

FSH
follicle stimulating hormone

Back 117

- Anterior Pituitary
- target is ovaries and testes.
female development of follicle, male production of sperm.

Front 118

LH
Luteinizing Hormone
in male called ICSH
interstitial cell stimulating hormone

Back 118

- Anterior Pituitary
- female: stim corpus luteum secrete estrogen & progesterone
- male: testosterone

Front 119

What is the isthmus?

Back 119

thyroid gland lobes connected by a band of tissue called the isthmus.

Front 120

What are the functional units of the thyroid gland called?

Back 120

follicles.

Front 121

What are three hormones that the thyroid produces?

Back 121

1. thyroxine T3
2. triiodothyronine T4
both increase metabolism
3. calcitonin (made by parafollicular cells) - regulates level of calcium in blood. Antagonistic to parathyroid hormone made by parathyroid gland.

Front 122

What does low secretions of thyroxine (T3) cause?

Back 122

Cretinism in children
stunted growth, thick face, retardation, lethargy

- Myxedema in adults: weight gain, slow pulse, lack of energy, weakness, decreased metabolic rate.

Front 123

What does too much T3 and T4 cause?
throxin and triiodothyronine

Back 123

Graves Disease (goiter)
often due to a tumor in thyroid
weight loss, rapid pulse, increase appetite and inc metabolic rate.
Bulging Eyes sometimes seen.

Front 124

What does calcitonin do?

Back 124

made by thyroid.
- regulates level of CA in blood
- antagonistic to PTH
- lowers CA in blood, increase level of CA in bone.

Front 125

Parathyroid gland: what does it secrete?

Back 125

- 4 tiny masses on posterior thyroid.
- secretes PTH (parathroid hormone or parathormone)
- increases CA (antagonistic to calcitonin) by stimulating osteoclases.
- also tells kidneys to reabsorb calcium from kidney tubules.

Front 126

What does the pancreas do?

Back 126

Digestive and Endocrine Functions.
- digestive: produce enzymes
- endocrine: produce insulin and glucagon in the Islets of Langerhans.

Front 127

What does Insulin do?

Back 127

- produced by pancreas
- throughout body
- glucose into cells (and so decrease blood levels of glucose)
- antagonistic to glucagon

Front 128

What is diabetes mellitus?

Back 128

- No insulin.
- glucose can't enter cells
- no energy
- excess glucose goes into urine.
- kidneys must expel more water to dilute glucose... pee a lot.. thirsty a lot.

Front 129

What does glucagon do?

Back 129

- produced by pancreas
- when you haven't eaten.
- stimulates breakdown of glycogen in liver
- increases blood glucose
- antagonistic to insulin

Front 130

Adrenal medulla produces hormones that...

Back 130

- hormones complement Sympathetic NS
- catecholamines (epi and norepi)

Front 131

Adrenal Cortex produces hormones that...

Back 131

- regulate mineral balance, energy balance & reproductive functions
- mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)
concentration of electrolytes (NA/K)
- glucocorticoids (cortisol/cortisone) anti-inflammatory, metabolism of carb, pro, fats, constrict blood vessels. Regulated by ACTH from anterior pit. - negative feedback.
- Steroids: sex characteristics

Front 132

Hyposecretion of Adrenal Cortex hormones causes..

Back 132

Addison's Disease
dehydration, hypotension, weakness, Na/K imbalance

Front 133

Hypersecretion of Adrenal Cortex hormones causes..

Back 133

Cushing's Syndrome:
puffy face, high BP, muscle weakness.

Front 134

What does the pineal gland produce?

Back 134

melatonin: day/night cycle

Front 135

What does the thymus gland produce?

Back 135

thymosins:
maturation and development of T-lymphocytes. immune system. Is large in babies, decreases w age.

Front 136

What does the corpus luteum produce?

Back 136

progesterone

Front 137

What are the three layers of the adrenal cortex?

Back 137

zona glomerulosa
zona fasciculata
zona reticularis