Social Psychology

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Social Psychology definition

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concerned with social behavior including the ways people influence each other's attitudes and behavior, the impact that individuals have on one another, the impact that social groups have on individual group members, the impact that individual group members have upon the social group, and the impact that social groups have on other social groups

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Norman Triplett

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In 1898, he published the first study of social psychology: he investigated the effect of competition on performance. He found that epople perform better on familiar tasks when in the prescence of others than when alone.

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William McDougall

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psychologist that published the first textbook on social psychology.

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E.H. Ross

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Sociologist that published the first textbook on social psychology

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Verplank

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In the 1950s he suggested that social approval influences behavior. The course of a conversation changes dramatically based on the feedback of others.

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Reinforcement Theory

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behavior is motivated by anticipated rewards.

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Social learning theory (Bandura)

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behavior is learned through imitation

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Role theory

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(bindle (1979) is the perspective that people are aware of the social roles they are expected to fill, and much of their observable behavior can be attributed to adopting those roles.

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Cognitive theory

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involves perception, judgement, memories and decision making

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attitudes

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keystone in the edifice of modern social psychology because the subject of attitudes resounds throughout the field.

Cognition or beliefs, feelings, and behavioral predisposition.

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Consistency Theories

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People prefer consistency, and will change or resist changing attitudes based upon this preference. If a person hates cigarette smoking, but falls in love with a cigarette smoker, there would be inconsistency. If the person is aware of this, they will try to solve it. Inconsistencies are called stimuli or irritants and are resolved by changing attitude.

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Fritz Heider's Balance Theory

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concerned with the way three elements are related: the person whom we're talking about (symbolized as P), some other person (O), and a thing, idea or some other person (X). Balance exists when all three fit together harmoniously.

The triad is successful if there are one or three positives but unsuccessful if there are 0 or 2 positives.

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Leon Festinger's Cognitive Dissonance Theory

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when your attitude and behavior conflict than you change your attitude

The greater the dissonancee, the greater the pressure to reduce it. He can change dissonant elements or add consonant elements. he can stop smoking, etc.

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free choice dissonance

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a person makes a choice between two desirable alternatives.

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post-decisional dissonance

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a kind of dissonance that confronts the subject after making a decision. It only emerges after a choice.

To reduce this dissonance he must accentuate the positive and downplay the negative or upplay the negative in the other to reduce the inconsistency.

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spreading of alternatives

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spreading apart the relative worth of two alternatives. Making the choice seem more positive and the one not chosen seem more negative.

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forced compliance dissonance

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being forced into a behavior that is at odds with your attitude. For example, if you are told you can get ice cream only if you eat your vegees.

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Festinger and Carlsmith (1959)

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subjects were asked to perform very boring tasks, like putting 12 spools in a tray, emptying the tray, refilling it and emptying it again.

They were given either 1 or 20 dollars and told to report the level of enjoyment of the task. The less they were paid the more they reported liking it because they had to change their attitude to match their behavior.

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minimal justification effect or insufficient justification effect

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if behavior can be justified by external inducements than there is no reason to change attitude. But if there is little incentive, than a person will likely change their attitude to have an internal motivation.

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Daryl Bem's Self-Perception Theory

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When your attitudes about something are ambiguous, then you look at your behavior to see how you feel about something.

The difference between Bem and Festinger's behavior is that Bem does not believe that there is discomfort or dissonance involved.

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Overjustification Effect

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If you reward someone for something they like doing than they may begin to not like it because they will attribute their liking to external cues.

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Carl Hovland's Model

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Attitude change as a process of communicating a message with the intent to persuade someone.

There is the communicator, the communication, and the situation.

The more credible the source is perceived to be, the greater the persuasive impact.

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Sleeper Effect

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in time the attitudes of a certain thing will revert back to the middle

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Increasing Credibility

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This can be done by arguing against your own self interest or presenting a two-sided argument of something.

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Resistance to Persuasion

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William Mcguire uses the anlogy of innoculation - a person can be innoculated against the attack of persuasive communications. when they are presented first with a weakened attack and then are given an unalloyed attack, they are able to defend it well.

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cultural truisms

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Will McGuire term - of beliefs that are seldom questioned.

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refuted counterarguments

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when he did an experiment questioning these cultural truisms and then refuted those arguments.

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Belief perseverance

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people will hold beleifs even after they have been shown it to be false. if you are told something and then told to make up a story for it and you do, than you will likely defend your case for that past the point of being shown it is false.

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reactance

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when social pressure is telling you to act in a certain way that is threatening the persons sense of freedom than they act out in away to assert their freedom. this is what will occur if you try too hard to convince someone of something.

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AFFILIATION AND ATTRACTION
Leon Festinger's Social Comparison Theory

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we are drawn to affiliate because of a tendency to evaluate ourselves in relationship to other people.

3 Principles:

1-People prefer to evaluate themselves by objective, nonsocial means. But when this is not possible they compare their abilities to others.

2 - the less the similarity of opinionis and abilities b/tw two people, the less the tendency to make these camparisions.

3 - discrepancy exists with respect to opinions and ablities, there is a tendency to change one's position so as to move it in line with the group.

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Stanley Schachter research on affiliation and anxiety

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greater anxiety does lead to greater desire to affiliate. A situation that provokes little anxiety typically does not lead to a desire to affiliate.

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Reciprocity Hypothesis

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we tend to like people who say they like us and we tend to dislike teh people that dislike us.

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Gain-Loss principle
Aronson and Linder

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an evaluation that changes will have more of an impact than an evaluation that stays the same. We will like someone more if it goes from neg to pos. but less if it goes from pos. to neg.

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Social Exachange Theory

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a person weights the rewards and costs of interacting with another. The more the rewards outweigh the costs, the greater the attraction to the other person.

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Resistance to Persuasion

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William Mcguire uses the anlogy of innoculation - a person can be innoculated against the attack of persuasive communications. when they are presented first with a weakened attack and then are given an unalloyed attack, they are able to defend it well.

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cultural truisms

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Will McGuire term - of beliefs that are seldom questioned.

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refuted counterarguments

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when he did an experiment questioning these cultural truisms and then refuted those arguments.

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Belief perseverance

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people will hold beleifs even after they have been shown it to be false. if you are told something and then told to make up a story for it and you do, than you will likely defend your case for that past the point of being shown it is false.

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reactance

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when social pressure is telling you to act in a certain way that is threatening the persons sense of freedom than they act out in away to assert their freedom. this is what will occur if you try too hard to convince someone of something.

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AFFILIATION AND ATTRACTION
Leon Festinger's Social Comparison Theory

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we are drawn to affiliate because of a tendency to evaluate ourselves in relationship to other people.

3 Principles:

1-People prefer to evaluate themselves by objective, nonsocial means. But when this is not possible they compare their abilities to others.

2 - the less the similarity of opinionis and abilities b/tw two people, the less the tendency to make these camparisions.

3 - discrepancy exists with respect to opinions and ablities, there is a tendency to change one's position so as to move it in line with the group.

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Stanley Schachter research on affiliation and anxiety

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greater anxiety does lead to greater desire to affiliate. A situation that provokes little anxiety typically does not lead to a desire to affiliate.

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Reciprocity Hypothesis

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we tend to like people who say they like us and we tend to dislike teh people that dislike us.

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Gain-Loss principle
Aronson and Linder

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an evaluation that changes will have more of an impact than an evaluation that stays the same. We will like someone more if it goes from neg to pos. but less if it goes from pos. to neg.

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Social Exachange Theory

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a person weights the rewards and costs of interacting with another. The more the rewards outweigh the costs, the greater the attraction to the other person. People want to maximize rewards and minimize costs.

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Equity Theory

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we consider not only our own costs and rewards, but the costs and rewards of the other person. We prefer that our ratio of costs to rewards be equal to the other person's. If one person think they are getting less they are upset.

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affiliation

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more likely to happen when intelligence, attitudes, education, height, age, religion, socioeconomic status, drinking habits, and mental health are the same.

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need complimentarity

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people choose relationships so that they mutually satisfy each other's needs. the person who likes to talk will date a person who likes to listen.

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physical atteractiveness

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the biggest determinant of attraction.

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attractiveness stereotype

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tendency to attribute positive qualities and desirable characteristics to attractive people.

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spatial proximity.

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people will generally develop a greater liking for someone who lives iwthin a few blocks that for someone who lives in a different neighborhood.

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Robert Zajonc and mere exposure

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the more you see something, the more likely you are going to like it.

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helping behavior

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behaviors that benefit other people or groups of people

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altruism

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helping people even when it is a cost to one's self.

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bystander intervention

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Darley and Latane

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pluralistic ignorance

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when several people act in a certain way, it is likely that everyone will.

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diffusion of responsibility

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the more people around, the less likely a person will take responsibility for something that has happened

smoke in the booth, people speeches, etc.

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empathy

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the ability to put yoruself in the emotions of another and it is also a strong helping behavior.

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Batson's empathy-altruism hypothesis

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people may help if they feel empathy

they did work with the shocks and the questionairre's

hard escape and easy escape conditions

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frustration-aggression hypothesis

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when people are frustrated, they act aggressively -- the strength of the frustration experiences is correlated with the level of aggression observed.

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Bandura's social learning theory

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aggression is learned through modeling, or through reinforcement

3-5 yr. olds rubber BOBO doll

child was made frustrated and then put in a room full of toys

Bandura thought people acted aggressively becuase they felt that some sort of reward would accompany it.

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Autokinetic effect

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Muzafer Shaerif - if you stare at a light in a room that is otherwise completely dark, the light will appear to move. The group would change their answers so that it would be closer to the norm.

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Line Conformity Study

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Solomon Asch

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Milgram's Obedience Exper.

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65% went all the way with the shocks

it was done at a run down place and then one with 2 dissenters and more dissented. With more distance, more shocks.

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foot in the door effect

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compliance with a small request increases the likelihood of compliance with a larger request. homeowners that first signed the petition were more likely to allow a large billboard to go up.

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door in the face effect

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people initially refuse a large request and then are more likely to agree to a later smaller request.

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Clark and Clark Doll Preference Study

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(1947) doll preference task - at the time, most of the black and white children preferred to play with the doll of their similar race.