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64 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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what is a sociological understanding of inequality?
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-soc looks not only how individuals act but at the social forces that shape actions.
-peoples fates are determined by structural factors AND individual effort |
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How do you know inequality when you see it?
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-income gap
-poverty |
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what is inequality? (diff from soc understanding of inequality)?
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-degree to which the units of a distribution have shares of some attribute (eg money) which are unequal in quantity
-inequality measures the disparity between a percentage of resources (eg income) received by that population -inequality increases as the disparity increases |
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why measure inequality?
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-guide policy: we find a link between inequality and crime..we need to make policies that eliminate so much violence.
-explain outcomes: inequalities are explanations of outcome -enables ranking/comparison |
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What are the 6 common ways to measure inequality?
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1. share of X of poorest X% (the poorest 10% of income earners own .05% of all stocks in the US)
2. range (subtract high from low) 3. range ratio (dividing a value at one predetermined percentile by the value at a lower predetermined percentile) 4. decile dispersion ratio (ave income of richest 10% divided by ave income of bottom 10%) 5. coefficient of variation (the lower coefficient of variation [or spread around mean] the lower the inequality 6. gini coefficient: (gini coefficient is equal to twice the are enclosed between the Lorenz curve and the equality diagonal.) |
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What are the major theories of social inequality?
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1. Marx's Theory of Social Inequality
2. Weber: The Inevitability of Inequality 3. Michael's Iron Law of Oligarchy 4. Dahrendorf: Neo-Weberian 5. Functional Theory: The Need for Inequality 6. Conflict Theory: The Dysfunctions of Inequality 7. Lenski's Synthesis 6. |
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Explain Marx's Theory of Social Inequality
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-inequality is from economic institutional structure
-economic institutions are powerful determinants of the entire system of society -historical materialism:look at dominant economic form, not historical periods. -mode of production:economic base. a society's system of economic production (feudalism, capitalism) the system of production by which people provide for their material existence is the society's economic foundation. -mean of production: productive resources. things that are necessary to supply the society's economic needs -As a society's economic base changes, the form and content of its noneconomic institutions must also change. -Marxs addresses 2 key theoretical issues: 1. Why is there inequality? -Means of Production: those who own or control the society's productive resources(the things that are necessary to supply the economic needs=division of society: part of the population owns these basic resources, and the other owns no productive property and can only offer human labor in exchange for material needs. Thus the latter is forced to work for the former. 2 thus classes then: Capital class vs working class. Capital maintains power as a result of the possession of three key assets: the means of production, control of the state, and control of ideas and values=ruling class=controls the govt -economic institutions shape general nature of beliefs and practices bc they are ran by the capitalist/ruling class In ALL societies class division evolves. -class struggle generates societal change - structure and dynamics of capitalis industrial societies. -Marx's theory failed bc 1. class struggle in advanced capitalistic societies did not become more acute, instead working classes settled for an accomodation with the capitalist class. 2. Marx thought the former would get smaller and the latter would grow, so marginal capitalists and entreprenuers would join and join in with lower class beliefs. Instead middle class grew making a split between upper and lower classes. 3.increasing complexity of the class systems made the workers material state not deteriorate but improve markedly from the degradating systems of Marx's time. 4. the assertion that class is the most fundamental and consequential form of social division has been shown to be questionable in societies racially diverse bs he assumed people will id with others who have similar class interests and that they would come together as a potent political force, but in racially diverse societies class identity and action take backseat to racial and ethnic identity and political action. Same with gender. -what made marx theory lasting in modern times: 1. idea that social class is key in the process of societal conflict and change. 2. marxian perspective demonstrates the way in which our social and political worlds are ideologically created |
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Major theories of social inequality:
Weber: The Inevitability of Inequality |
-weber added to marx theory: that stratification, class positions, are based on their relation to means of production but other interdependent variables.
-Like Marx hierarchy based on economic factors but also hierarchies based on status and political power. -Weber on Class: similar to Marx, a class is those who stand in a similar position with regard to their opportunities in aquiring society's economic rewards (life chances). Diff from Marx believed that skills and credentials important to class formation. ex a lanlord earning income from rent of a doctor-the two have diff life chances. Ppl differ in life chances as a result of ownership of a property (marx) but others may possess greater life chances as a result of skills or expertise in a profession which means higher salaries even if they dont own productive property (weber). Ppl with common occs earning similar incomes constitutes a class. -Weber on Status: important in analyzing social inequality bc it elucidates the complexity of modern stratification systems. Status refers to differences in prestige that derive from a particular lifestyle, no economic factors, (unlike marx). Lifestyles and class are related bc any style of life is based for the most part on occupation and income. Those with same status occupy same economic position Weber on Party: power stems not only from the extent of one's income and wealth but organizational (political) position. contribution to inequality theory: weber believed stratification comes from several sources, not just ones place in the productive system (marx). ppl are ranked on the basis of racial group membership and their gender in addition to economic position. -Weber also saw modern socities heading toward bureaucracy which means everyone has a specialized role which means inequality and alienation. -Like Marx, Weber explained social inequality as rooted in power -Unlike Marx, weber did not envision the elimination of social inequality |
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Major theories of social inequality:
Michael Iron's Law of Oligarchy |
-contemporary of Weber
-Oligarchy: the rule of many by the few, it is inevitable even in the most democratic organizations and societies. -those who control organizations and their resources constitute the ruling class, not those who control the society's economic wealth. -no matter who owns the means of production, the administration of capital and other vital resources will be necessary, and makes bureaucracy and elite rule inevitable. -Like Weber, Michaels argued the emergence of a socialist system would do nothing to reverse the inevitability of social inequality. |
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Major theories of social inequality:
Dahrendorf: Neo-Weberian |
-essentially Weberian, some Marxian
-large, bureaucratic organized corps dominate the economy, but it is the managerial class that exerts essential control over the resources of the corp. Therefore the question of who owns the means of production (marx) is irrelevant. Corp managers make decisions w/ the corps assets and direct/exploit the workers yet the managers themselves are not the owners. -dahrendorf's basis of class division in modern societies= most critical is the authoritative power: who controls the decision-making apparatus of the organization |
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Major theories of social inequality:
Functional Theory: the Need for Inequality |
-functional theorists assume all societies are made up of diff and necessary roles that must be filled in order for society to function which inevitably creates inequality. (farmers to feed us, doctors to cure us, factory workers to make cars, teachers to train young)
-in everybody's interest we reward those in important positions with higher incomes, etc to ensure those that are the most qualified occupy those positions and that they will want to endure all the trouble to get to such an important position. (school, training, long hours) -"social inequality is... an unconsciously evolved device by which societies ensure that the most important positions are conscientiously filled by the most qualified persons." |
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Major theories of social inequality:
Conflict Theory: the Dysfunctions of Inequality |
-the basis of one's salary may not be a good reflection of how critical the person's position/role is in society.
-agrees with functionalists theory: integrative nature of society is true-various roles in society must be played for society to function adequately. -disagrees with functionalists theory: then aren't all roles critical? How are the "most important" positions in society really identified? -one could reverse the argument of func theory and say that logically societies would pay more to those who do nasty jobs like garbage pick up to ensure ppl fill these roles. -Ex: are docs more important than teachers bc docs make more? -conflict theory says "Power" makes positions more deserving and important. ex doc has more power bc he can deny people his services. How long would we tolerate docs on strike vs garbage man? -in conflict theory, highly paid workers have convinced the rest of society that their positions are more important and therefore deserve higher pay. -Conflict disagrees with func theory: 1.-conflict theorists argue there are no assurances that the most qualified individuals will occupy important societal roles. If the society were one in which equality of opportunity were truely a realtiy, we could conclude that the only determining factors are peoples skills and talents, but people start off in diff circumstances from birth. 2. func says need to use rewards to fill societys important postions, but this discounts other rewards like prestige or self-gratification 3. conflict asks whether the extreme diffs in distribution are necessary even if we accept the func basic argument (some positions are more important and must be rewarded accordingly), but HOW much is justifiable? |
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Major theories of social inequality:
Conflict Theory: the Dysfunctions of Inequality |
-the basis of one's salary may not be a good reflection of how critical the person's position/role is in society.
-agrees with functionalists theory: integrative nature of society is true-various roles in society must be played for society to function adequately. -disagrees with functionalists theory: then aren't all roles critical? How are the "most important" positions in society really identified? -one could reverse the argument of func theory and say that logically societies would pay more to those who do nasty jobs like garbage pick up to ensure ppl fill these roles. -Ex: are docs more important than teachers bc docs make more? -conflict theory says "Power" makes positions more deserving and important. ex doc has more power bc he can deny people his services. How long would we tolerate docs on strike vs garbage man? -in conflict theory, highly paid workers have convinced the rest of society that their positions are more important and therefore deserve higher pay. -Conflict disagrees with func theory: 1.-conflict theorists argue there are no assurances that the most qualified individuals will occupy important societal roles. If the society were one in which equality of opportunity were truely a realtiy, we could conclude that the only determining factors are peoples skills and talents, but people start off in diff circumstances from birth. 2. func says need to use rewards to fill societys important postions, but this discounts other rewards like prestige or self-gratification 3. conflict asks whether the extreme diffs in distribution are necessary even if we accept the func basic argument (some positions are more important and must be rewarded accordingly), but HOW much is justifiable? |
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Major theories of Social Inequality:
Lenski's synthesis |
-distribution of societal rewards is based on the seemingly contradictry principles of both need and power.
-Lenski's theory explains why there is social inequality and why it varies in degree from society to society. Answer: levels of technology and power. those with low tech=low inequality bc little surplus can be produced therefore little social conflict. |
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How social scientist study and identify inequality:
How do social scientists study inequality? |
- Regression Analysis
- Self-Reports of disc - Victimization Studies - Audits |
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Structure of Economic Inequality (esp over time in the US) & Forces behind the growing income inequality:
What are the 7 factors contributing to the income gap? |
1. Globalization
2. Institutional/Political Factors: wage freeze, sticky floor 3. Decline in Labor Unions 4. Economic Restructuring:deindustrialization (manuf to service jobs) 5. Corporate Mergers:more money to few, job cutting 6. Shifts in gov spending: military, TANF, food stamps, corp mergers 7. Tax System: progressive, regressive & porportional & systems of welfare (pub assist, enititlements, ss, medicaid, corp welfare) |
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Cause of Structure of Economic Inequality (esp over time in the US)?
Main Reason/Concept: |
-Income gap, and it is growing over time in the US.
-Huge gap between the top 1% of income earners and the bottom 10% -middle class formed, developing a diff/big gap between the top and bottom |
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Structure of Economic Inequality (esp over time in the US)
Summarize Frank's Essay "does growing inequality harm the middle class" |
-After the 70's poor's income went down, middle class stayed about the same, wealthy increased a large large amount.
-Now the wealthy are making more than ever and spending more than ever. This pushes the middle class to spend more which =debt and none in savings. -Can have psych effects on lower/working class. (Not being up to our current standard of living which is set high by middle class which is set higher by wealthy) We are therefore spending less on important things like roads, food safety, quality of air bc voters feel they cant afford them. Consequence of income gap Middle class= higher in real absolute terms but not in relative. World A&B: Most would chose A where they make 110,000 but the rest made 200 because we want absolute quantity of goods and services. A offers absolute consumption for everyone. |
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Forces behind the growing income inequality:
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-Mean fam income by quintile are earning more than in the 70's but, large gap still exists and is growing.
-Top earners are earning more than ever |
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Forces behind the growing income inequality:
What was the family income by quintile from 79-05? |
Bottom 20%= decline by 1%
-Top 5%= incline by 81% Why we have such a large income gap, but skewed by outliers |
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Forces behind the growing income inequality:
T or F Americans favor the wealthy. Why? |
-True
-Americans hopes and pursuits of being in the richest 1% of earners and therefore favor repeal of inheritance tax that is levied on only the wealthiest 2% of Americans. & bc of -Dominant Ideology and paradox: Individualism, equality in opp. Both those at the Top and Bottom tend to beleive in the "fairness" of their positions. -Acceptance of these ideologies: everyone thinks they may be at the top someday & meritocracy |
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Cause of Structure of Economic Inequality (esp over time in the US)?
explain world a vs world b problem |
-we might chose world B over A because even though we earn less than what we would in A, we make more than others in B therefore more POWER in relative terms.
-Power over others in the US means you have more wealth, presitige, better class, etc -Political power: we want this to make policies that fit our beliefs. the more wealthy & higher class you are the more political power you have |
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Laws governing the Workplace:
Explain Title 7 |
- Title 7 of the Civil Rights Act
-prohibits disc in hiring or in wages on the basis of protected rights. race, sex, religion, etc. -15 or more must be employed |
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Laws governing the Workplace
explain title 7 national origin |
harassment
language/accent: linguistic profiling think you know where someone is from based on this but really have no idea. |
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Laws governing the Workplace
explain title 7 sex |
harassment
pregnancy based on disc intentional disporportional affect: hiring only those who are 5'11 but a 5'7 person can do it. Obvi not a lot of women are 5'11 sex may be proven as a BFOQ |
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Laws governing the Workplace
explain title 7 race and color |
harassment
race related conditions that are enatable characteristic belonging to a racial group segregation & classification of workers (blacks in back, whites up with cust) pre-employment inquiries (applications) |
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Laws governing the Workplace
explain title 7 religion |
must accommodate if religion is legit and traditional
unless so disruptive it affects operation of the business |
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Laws governing the Workplace
explain ADA |
-prohibits disc of disability in all employment practices
-protects indiv with a physical or mental impairment that limits one+ major life activities that an ave person can perform w/little to no difficulty -20 or more employees |
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Laws governing the Workplace
explain ADEA |
-protects individuals who are 40 years + from age based employment disc
-age must be proven a BFOQ -denial of benefits to older employees |
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Laws governing the Workplace
explain equal pay act |
-prohibits disc on the basis of sex in wages
-where men and women perform work of similar skill, effort, and responsibility for the same employer under similar working conditions. -doesnt have to be the same job title -employer violations: employers can often rebuttle claims -all employers that are allowed to pay a min wage (basically everyone) |
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Laws governing the Workplace
What does EEOC do to non-compliers? |
1. req cooperation
2. distribute/post non-disc policies 3. training 4. restructure job search methods 5. oversight office |
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Laws governing the Workplace
How does EEOC monitor compliance? |
- EEO-1 reports
-all fed contractors w/ 50 or more employees or 50,000$ in projects -subsideries of parent corps that have more employees |
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Patterns of Race-based residential segregation:
explain isolation index |
(exposure)
probability that members of each race will meet members of a diff group in their census area |
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Patterns of Race-based residential segregation:
explain index of dissimilarity |
reflects relative race/group distribution across neighborhoods in a city or metropolitan area
ranges 0-100 0= total integration 100= total segregation |
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Patterns of Race-based residential segregation:
explain measure of concentration |
relative amount of physical space occupied by a minority group in the metropolitan area
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Patterns of Race-based residential segregation:
of racial groups, which experinces the most res seg in order? |
1. blacks
2. latinos 3. asians 4. american indians -res seg has increased for asians/pacific islanders -decreased for latinos |
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Patterns of Race-based residential segregation:
what is hyper-segregation? |
high segregation across multiple dimensions of segregation.
ex blacks during civil war |
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Patterns of Race-based residential segregation:
explain Fair-Housing Act 1968 |
prohibits disc in sale, rental, financing of housing and other housing related transactions.
Race, color, origin, sex, FAMILIAL STATUS, disability FHA uses linguistic profiling too to determine disc taking place |
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Causes of Race-based residential segregation;
1. Prejudice is so explain it |
-whites report feeling "uncomfortable" in a neighborhood with more than a few black residents
-depending on the % black in neighborhood= white home demand declines, black home demand increases -LA: among all groups, blacks are the least preferred out-group neighbors |
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Causes of Race-based residential segregation:
2. Housing Disc= describe practices of suburban realtors |
-Housing Discrimination=
-"gatekeeping and racial steering" -blacks are shown less expensive homes and in predominately black neighborhoods -chances of seeing house on 1st visit: blacks=25%, whites=75% |
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Causes of Race-based residential segregation
3. Redlining is so explain it |
Illegal for banks to deny loans or restrict # of loans, and mortgage insurance coverage they give in certain areas of a community
illegal practice of denying mortgage insurance coverage to residents of certain communities. |
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Causes of Race-based residential segregation
4. Home Loans=Regarding home loans list the races in order from those who get denied the most to those who get denied the least. Denied the most : |
Upper income blacks
Mod income whites Upper income hisp Upper income whites |
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Effects of Segregation on People:
what is a consequence of seg? |
-concentration of poverty
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Definitions of Social Class
What is the power elite |
occupy positions of great importance and make big decision that impact society.
societal power ex's of powerful decision making: gov and corporate positions |
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Definitions of Social Class
What is the upper class? |
those with great wealth like income, stocks, property.
capitalist class |
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Definitions of Social Class
What occs are upper middle class comprised of? |
-white collar workers: mental not labor work, autonomy,
govt, corps, media, educ, medicine. all critical to function and the "running" of societies major institutions. income from salaries |
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Definitions of Social Class
What are the 3 levels of the middle class (bourgeoisie) |
1. upper middle
2. lower middle 3 working class: these 3 come together as one because they are drastically diff from the very top and bottom these 3 are sep cuz they are diff in ses characteristics |
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Definitions of Social Class
what occs are lower middle class comprised of? |
middle managers, semi pros.
income from salaries and wages |
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Definitions of Social Class
What occs are working (working middle) class comprised of? |
blue collar workers, labor, skilled trades
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Definitions of Social Class
What are the two dimensions classes are seen as? |
1. economic
2. behavioral a class will share economic dimensions as in educ, income, etc and behavioral dimensions as in lifestyles and things they do/participate in |
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Definitions of Social Class
What is socioeconomic status? |
SES. sociologists use this instead of social class.
Ses based on 1. income and wealth 2. occupational prestige 3. educational level. same ses=same lifestyles |
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what is proletarianization
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the haze between white and blue collar workers
some jobs considered white collar are losing autonomy and becoming routinized therefore blurring into blue collar work |
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Patterns of Inequality (and race-based seg) in US public schools
explain income gap among public schools |
-lowest income pub schools= about $4,400
-highest= about $6,800 |
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Patterns of Inequality (and race-based seg) in US public schools
explain relationship between neighborhood and pub school |
-the lower the income neighborhood=bad/poor pub school=minority is majority=lack of opportunities to succeed
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Causes of Gender Inequality at Work:
what are the 3 forms of sex inequality at work |
1. sex segregation:
-concentration of women and men into diff kinds of work or performing the same tasks under diff titles. -decline cuz of EEO, EPA, etc 2. sex differences in promotions and authority: -glass ceiling: prevents women and minorities from moving into leadership positions. -glass escalator: fast track for men to get promoted quickly 3. sex differences in earnings: -explanations for the gap: demand side: interviewers/employers, biggest factor in gap, supply side: aspiration diffs in male and females in college majors. Crowding argument: genders crowd into their gender dom occs. |
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Causes/Forms of Gender Inequality at Work:
From kanter's study |
-where you work shapes you attitudes/ behaviors
-organizational position, not sex of employee, leads to diff attitudes, commitment and behavior -masc and fem behaviors developed in response to the problems they face in trying to their jobs -people get "stuck" on the corporate ladder. |
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Consequences of Gender Inequality at work:
Also from Kanters study |
-people get "stuck" on the corporate ladder responded with
1. disengagement 2. sub social recognition for organizational recognition 3. conservative resistance -Tokenism: performance pressures and coworkers exaggerate the diffs between them and the token |
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Why existing theories of race and sex disc dont apply to sex orientation disc in the workplace?
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-coworkers dont know their a minority unless they disclose it. Not a physical characteristic
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What is the unique experience of homosexual in workplace?
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-other "invisible" minorities as well but you can choose to disclose this
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Which of the coping strategies is more likely to report their disability?
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Identifiers: those that have obvious disabilities and integrate disab into their self image, active disab rights
minimizers and passers wont bc they are trying to be normal and dont want ppl to disc bc of their disab |
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Definition of Poverty in the US:
What are the 3 ways poverty can be conceptualized? |
1. absolute poverty
--unable to meet their fundamental human needs. -cannot maintain standard of basic diet, min health care, few personal properties such as clothes 2. relative poverty --poverty is defined relative to the standards and expectations of people in a society at a particular time -different standards as societal conditions change 3. official poverty -gov't def of poverty -poverty line: 1964 fam spend 1/3 income on food so poverty line= 3 times the cost of a adequate diet. -Poverty threshold:adjusted each year for inflation, col. -Problem: people now dont spend that much money on food. more on housing, fun stuff |
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Main Policies Aimed at reducing Poverty:
what are current welfare programs? |
-SS & Medicare: avail to all regardless of econ status
-AFDC: Aid to Fam w Dep Children. replaced by TANF TANF: welfare reform:-able-bodied recipients must work. -failure to work within 2 years after start will lose benefits -on welfare for max of 5 years |
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Cons of AA in US
Why the opposition to AA? |
1. misunderstanding AA
2. employer misconstrue AA 3. race and sex stereotypes 4. politics 5. media |
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Environmental Inequality and Racism
causes of it? |
-we have highly segregated neighborhoods bc highly seg pay gap.
-makes it easy for co's to place factories in low income neighborhoods bc low class wont really do anything about it, no one listens, uninformed about the harms, etc. & absense/lack of minorities on boards to give opinion on zoning policies |
