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44 Cards in this Set
- Front
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Main characteristics of a typical qualitative dataset |
1. Its tendency to become increasingly long 2. Its unfocused and heterogeneous nature |
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1. Its tendency to become increasingly long |
- In qualitative research, there are no explicit restrictions on what can be considered ‘data’ (Dörnyei, 2007). • Richards (2005) concludes that the researcher in a qualitative project often starts out by treating everything around a topic as potential data. Thus, qualitative data expands quickly, and novice researchers often find that the real challenge is not to generate enough data but rather to generate useful data out of the too much data they have. • This does not mean that qualitative data cannot produce valuable results, but it does mean that processing such sizeable and heterogeneous datasets can involve a lot of work. |
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1. Its tendency to become increasingly long Example: |
Dörnyei (2007) reported a case of one of his students who gathered so much data that she spent the next eight months translating, transcribing, and preliminarily coding it, which cut dangerously into her remaining time for follow- up data collection and second-order analysis. |
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2. Its unfocused and heterogeneous nature |
• Qualitative research is ‘by definition less systematic and standardized in its data collection approach than quantitative research. • Accordingly, the design of most qualitative data collection is fluid and open-ended, and researchers are not required to plan all elements of the project at the outset. -Richards (2005) emphasized that possibly the most common cause of problems in qualitative data collection is the lack of any plans for data reduction. She argued ‘Novice researchers can very easily frame the scale of a project in terms of how widely they might need to spread their net, rather than how wide, realistically, the spread can be’(P.20). |
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Sampling in qualitative research |
• QUAN and QUAL research differ greatly in how they approachparticipant sampling. • Quantitative studies target a sizeable and representative sample to be able to generalize the findings to the target population. • Qualitative inquiry is not concerned with how representative the respondent sample is or how the experience is distributed in the population. • Instead, the main goal of QUAL sampling is to find individuals who can provide rich and varied insights into the phenomenon under investigation so as to maximize what we can learn. • This goal is best achieved by means of some sort of ‘purposeful’ or ‘purposive’ sampling. |
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Sampling in qualitative research A.Purposive Sampling |
A qualitative study must have a ‘sampling plan’ and principled decisions describing the sampling parameters: • Participants (how many respondents we can contact?), • Settings (how many sites we can visit?), • Events (at which point to add additional participants to the sample?), • Processes (when to stop gathering more data?). This plan should line up with the purposes of the study. |
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Sampling in qualitative research B. Theoretical Sampling |
• Sampling should be a flexible, ongoing, evolving process of selecting successive respondents or sites, directed by our earlier discoveries so that the emerging ideas and theoretical concepts can be tested and further refined. • Silverman (2005): the term ‘theoretical sampling’ has been transferred from grounded theory to qualitative research, and it is typically used synonymously with ‘purposive’ sampling. |
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Specific Purposive Sampling procedures |
• The selection of different sampling strategies depends on the research topic and setting. • It is very important to make the ‘sampling strategy’ explicit right from the start so that we can convey the underlying logic to the readers of the final research report. • The following list of the most common interrelated qualitative sampling strategies offers a sense of how wide we need to throw the net to be able to reach relatively quick saturation in different research areas : |
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list of the most common interrelated qualitative sampling strategies to reach saturation. |
Homogeneous sampling. Typical sampling. Criterion sampling. Maximum variation sampling. Extreme or deviant case sampling. Snowball or chain sampling. Convenience sampling. |
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Homogeneous sampling |
• The researcher selects participants from a particular subgroup who share some important experience relevant to our study (for example, they have participated in a study-abroad program). • This strategy allows us to conduct an in-depth analysis to identify common patterns in a group with similar characteristics. |
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Typical sampling
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• The researcher selects participants whose experience is typical with regard to the research focus (for example, they all study a foreign language as a school subject at an intermediate level with moderate success). |
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Criterion sampling |
• The researcher selects participants who meet some specific predetermined criteria (for example, language learners who failed an important language exam). |
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Maximum variation sampling |
• The researcher selects cases with markedly different forms of experience (for example, L2. learners from all study levels). • This process will allow us to explore the variation within the respondents and it will also underscore any commonalities that we find: if a pattern holds across the sampled diversity, we can assume that it is reasonably stable. |
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Extreme or deviant case sampling |
• Following the same logic as maximum variation sampling the researcher selects the most extreme cases (for example, the most motivated and demotivated learners). • On the one hand, this allows us to find the limits of the experience; on the other hand, if even such cases share common elements, they are likely to be real core components of the experience. |
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Snowball or chain sampling |
• The starting point of this strategy is a principled list of key respondents, who are then asked to recruit further participants who are similar to them in some respect central to the investigation. This chain reaction can reach far, which is ideal in situations where the experience in question is rare. |
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Convenience sampling |
• This is the least desirable but the most common sampling strategy, at least at the postgraduate research level. It is not purposive but largely practical: the researcher uses those who are available and willing. • One redeeming feature of this sampling strategy is that it usually results in willing participants, which is a prerequisite to having a rich dataset. • Thus, this strategy may save time, money, and effort, but at the expense of credibility since saturation may not happen at all. |
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Iteration, saturation, and sample size |
• ‘Iteration’ is a cyclical process of moving back and forth between data collection and analysis: the participant selection process remains open as long as possible so that after initial accounts are gathered and analyzed, additional participants can be added who can fill gaps in the initial description or can expand it. • Can iteration go on forever? • When do we stop it? → There are no rigid guidelines, but-scholars agree that ideally the iterative process should go on until we reach saturation. |
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Iteration, saturation, and sample size 2 |
• Dörnyei (2007) defined saturation as ‘the point when additional data do not seem to develop the concepts any further but simply repeat what previous informants have already revealed (i.e., becoming ‘empirically confident’ that all the data needed to answer the research question are there)’. • The more cohesive/homogeneous the sample, the faster the saturation, but at the same time, the narrower the scope of the project. |
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How big should the sample size be in a qualitative study? |
• Dörnyei (2007): an interview study with an initial sample size of 6-10 might work well. • Using computer-aided data analysis we can increase the sample size to as many as 30, although that would probably be barely manageable for a single researcher such as a postgraduate student. |
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Interviews |
• An interview is a research tool that has structure, purpose, and form, and can be defined as (usually) a person-to person structured conversation for the purpose of finding and/or creating meaningful data which has to be collected, analyzed, and validated (Griffee, 2018). |
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1. Structured interviews |
• The researcher follows a pre-prepared ‘interview schedule/guide’,which contains a list of predetermined questions to be covered closely with every interviewee, the interviewer does not deviate from those questions, and the interviewer does not ask for clarification of answers. • Such tightly controlled interviews ensure that the interviewee focuses on the target topic area and that the interview covers a well-defined domain, which makes the answers comparable across different respondents. |
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1. Structured interviews 2 |
• Is appropriate when the researcher is aware of what he/she does not know and can frame questions that will yield the needed answers. • However, there generally little room for variation or spontaneity in the responses because the interviewer is to record the responses according to a coding scheme. • There is also very little flexibility in the way questions are asked because by adopting a standardized format it is hoped that nothing will be left to chance. |
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2. Unstructured interviews 1 |
• (sometimes also referred to as the ‘ethnographic interview’); is a one-on-one interview with no set agenda. • It allows maximum flexibility to follow the interviewee in unpredictable directions, with only minimal interference from the research agenda. • The intention is to create a relaxed atmosphere in which the respondent may reveal more than he/she would in formal contexts, with the interviewer assuming a listening role. |
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2. Unstructured interviews 2 |
• No detailed interview guide is prepared in advance, although the researcher usually thinks of a few (1-6) opening questions (sometimes called ‘grand tour’ questions) to elicit the interviewee’s story. • During the interview, the researcher may ask an occasional question for clarification and may give reinforcement feedback as any good communication partner would to keep the interview moving, but interruptions are kept to a minimum. • This kind of interview is most appropriate when a study focuses on the deep meaning of particular phenomena or when some personal historical account of how a particular phenomenon has developed is required. |
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3. Semi-structured interviews |
• Offers a compromise between the two extremes (structured vs. unstructured interviews). • It means that although there is a set of pre-prepared guiding questions and direction (the ‘-structured’ part), the format is open-ended in that the interviewer is also keen to follow up interesting developments and the interviewee is encouraged to elaborate on certain issues in an exploratory manner (the ‘semi-’part). • In applied linguistic research, most interviews conducted belong to this type. |
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3. Semi-structured interviews 2 |
• Is suitable for cases when the researcher has a good enough overview of the phenomenon or domain in question and is able to develop broad questions about the topic in advance but does not want to use readymade response categories that would limit the depth and breadth of the respondent’s story. • This format therefore needs an ‘interview guide’ which, has to be made and piloted in advance. Usually, the interviewer will ask the same questions of all of the participants, although not necessarily in the same order or wording. |
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Preparing for the interview and designing the interview guide |
The interview process involves a series of carefully designed steps: • Start the preparation well before the first interview session. • Prepare a detailed interview guide (or ‘interview schedule/protocol’), which will serve as the main research instrument. |
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Functions of the interview guide |
(a) Ensuring that the domain is properly covered and nothing important is left out by accident. (b) Suggesting appropriate question wordings. (c) Offering a list of useful probe questions to be used if needed. (d) Offering a template for the opening statement. (e) Listing some comments to bear in mind. |
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Questions types in an interview |
A. Introductory questions. B. Content questions. C. The closing question. |
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A. Introductory questions |
• Particularly important in an interview because they set the tone and create initial rapport between the interviewer and the interviewee. • Personal or factual questions (demographics) should be used since they will make interviewees feel competent, help them to relax and consequently encourage them to open up. • The quality of the subsequent responses will to a large extent depend on the climate of trust that we create in this initial ice-breaking period. |
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B. Content questions |
At least six kinds of questions we can ask in an interview (Patton, 2002): 1. Experience questions: about what a person has done. 2. Opinion/value questions: what people think about an issue. 3. Feeling questions: asks about the emotional state. 4. Knowledge questions: seek to find out what people know. 5. Sensory questions: what respondents have seen, heard, touched, tasted, or smelled. 6. Background questions, such as age, job, education, or residence |
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C. The closing question |
This permits the interviewee to have the final say. Several scholars have noted the richness of the data that simple closing questions such as the following final ones can yield: ‘Is there anything else you would like to add?’ or ‘What should I have asked you that I didn’t think to ask?’ |
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Wording of questions in an interview •Use: |
1.Short and relatively simple questions that contain only one idea and could have only one meaning. 2.Words that make sense to the interviewee and reflect his/her worldview help to connect to the respondent and improve the quality of the interview data. |
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Wording of questions in an interview •Avoid: |
1.Using words that the' interviewee does not understand. 2.Leading questions (‘It was frustrating, wasn’t it ...?’). 3.Loaded or ambiguous words and jargon. |
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Conducting the interview Starting the interview |
• The first few minutes are important because this is the time when we set the tone/climate of the interview and ‘sell ourselves’, that is, establish our credentials and make ourselves accepted. • Demonstrate that you are genuinely interested in what the interviewee has got to say and also that you are a nice and non-threatening person. • It is better to appear ‘slightly dim’ and ‘too agreeable’ than to give any sign of a critical or sardonic attitude’. |
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Conducting the interview Starting the interview 2 |
• Before starting the recording, explain again the reason(s) for the interview. This will increase the motivation of the interviewee to respond openly and in detail. • Summarize briefly 'what will happen to the interview data’ and reassure the respondent again on the issue of confidentiality. • Again, at this stage build rapport with the interviewee and facilitate a relaxed, non-threatening atmosphere in which the interviewee can feel comfortable to express him/herself. • When you think that the interviewee is at ease, you should ask if it is all right to switch on the recorder and to test that it works. |
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Conducting the interview During the interview |
A good qualitative interview has two key features: • (a) It flows naturally, with the various parts connecting seamlessly.Remember that you are there primarily to listen (and not speak! ): let the interviewee dictate the pace without being rushed or interrupted. Even if there is a silence, be patient and resist stepping in too quickly with a new question. (b) It is rich in detail. Richards (2003) recommended a golden rule for all interviewing: ‘Always seek the particular’. It is clear that meeting this second requirement can come at the expense of the first because at times we may need to interrupt the natural flow of an account (particularly if it drifts into rambling mode) and focus on specific details. |
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Conducting the interview Recording the interview
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• If you want to use the content of a semi-structured or unstructured interview as research data, you need to record it. • Taking notes is simply not enough as we are unlikely to be able to catch all the details of the nuances of personal meaning; furthermore, note-taking also disrupts the interviewing process. • However, many people do not like to be recorded, and therefore we must discuss this aspect with the interviewee and get their approval in advance. |
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Cautions with Recording |
- Technically: make sure that the technology works so that you end up with good quality recordings. - Theoretically: by doing audio recording we inevitably lose some information, for example nonverbal cues such as eye movements, facial expressions or gestures. • This would suggest a video recording. Although video data is obviously richer than audio recordings, the video recording process is much more difficult, and analyzing video data is not an easy task either. |
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Conducting the interview Ending the interview |
You can signal that the interview is nearing the end by: • Using pre-closing moves such as summarizing or recapping the main points of the discussion. These also have a significance content-wise because they allow the interviewee to correct anything that we may have misunderstood and to make any additional points. • Give the respondent an explicit opportunity to make any comments that might be relevant/important, but which have not been covered in the rest of the interview (‘I have no further questions. Do you have anything more you want to bring up, or ask about, before we finish the interview?’ |
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Practical Dos and Don’ts for interviewers There are a number of useful techniques to keep the interview on track: |
1. Listen more than you speak. 2. Put questions in a straightforward, clear and non-threatening way. 3. Eliminate cues which lead interviewees to respond in a particular way. 4. Enjoy it. 5. Be a sympathetic listener: use positive head nodding, small gestures. 6. Reinforcement feedback. 7. Encouraging elaboration. 8. Attention focusing devices. |
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Strengths of interviews |
1. User friendly: it is “just talking,” and talking is natural (Griffee, 2018). In addition, persons who might be candidates for interviews, such as students and other teachers, are often available and willing to talk. 2. Data are explanatory in the sense that they can be used in conjunction with other kinds of data. For example, data from interviews can be combined with data from questionnaires to strengthen interpretations, have in-depth explanations or unequivocal interpretations. |
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Weaknesses of interviews |
1. ‘Time-consuming’ to set up and conduct and requires good communication skills on the part of the interviewer, which not all-of us have naturally. 2. Its format does not allow for anonymity: respondents might try to display themselves in a better than real light, some can be too shy and inarticulate to produce sufficient data, or at the other extreme, they can be too verbose, generating a lot of less-than- useful data. 3. Persons available for interviews may not have the information or understanding we are looking for while persons who do have the information may not be available. Also, People may be unwilling to discuss what they know; especially on sensitive topics. |
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Key types of interviews |
1. Structured interviews. 2. Unstructured interviews. 3. Semi-structured interviews. |
