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163 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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what is believed of the mystic universe of the midle ages
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everyone in europe believed in God as a force. they thought everything on earth was there for a purpose. beliefe that God arranged the elements like Fire heavens air water earth one on top of another
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God as the external force during the middle ages. they thought ___ had put ____________ where it was for a _________. (___, _____, ____, etc)
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they thought God had put everything where it was for a purpose (air earth fire etc)
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All is Gods plan means they thought everything ______ ________ _____ _____ ___ ____ ________ _____
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they thought everything that happened was part of Gods bigger plan
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the scientific revolution applies ___ as the ________ force & all is ____ ____ to ______ and then to ______
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applys the GOd as the external force & all is Gods plans to nature then to humans
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Galileo's imperfections of the heavens
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had a telliscope he looked at the moon and said it was imperfect because of craiters. this disturbed many ppl because without the telescope it looked perfectly smooth
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galileos importance of sensory observation
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he believed you should beable to see, feel touch taste etc something before believing in it. if it wasnt tangible it wasnt real
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newtons works (law of gravity
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people were impressed with his works mainly the law of gravity uniting earth & heavens
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newtons results _____ in science for all _______ as opposed to ___ and the _______
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faith in science to get all answers as opposed to God and the Mystics
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newtons results universe gigantic
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old beliefe that heaven was right outside planets. as scientists developed better telescopes they found it wasnt true, this challenged the mystic view
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newtons results universe as an equations
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the universe is a bunch of mathmatical equations
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newtons results metaphor of the machine the ________ is a _____________ complex _______
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the universe is a mathmatically complex machine
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applying the metaphor of the machine to humans if you see the ________ as ______ it is ____ to see ______ as ______. if you see the ________ as a _______ then ______ become _______ like also
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if you see the universe as mystic its easy to see humans as mystic if you see it as a machiene humans become machiene like also
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natural laws
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scientists say these just exist they have no reasons behind that they just do.
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seeking to discover cause effect relationships
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when you applyed natural laws to humans the old belief was that this was what inspired you but now ppl were saying something must need to be adjusted (cause effect)
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descartes theory descartes was able to connect all the _______ _________ theorys together to make one larger better theory
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a number of ppl began putting machine conscious theorys together but not connecting them. Descartes was the smart guy that connected all the theorys together
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descartes morning study
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after he woke up he would lie in bed awake thinking
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descartes humans with free mind and mechanical body (the activation switch)
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inspired by an event to think of humas as machiens he was walking in the queens garden , heard a sound and saw posaiden statue raise from a fountain. he figured he had stepped on a switch that made the statue raise. he said if i was a country person i would have thought it was a monster and ran. he thought we were machines that had switches like this that someone was steping on
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descartes cartesian split
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belief that ppl have free will soul & a machine body, descartes focused on the machien part
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descartes human body as flush toilet model/vital spirits
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he said inside our bodies we have vital spirits (fluids). when some one moves a body part a bunch of vital spirits move there. the more you move (normaly) the faster vital spirits can get to that area. (like weight training)
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hobbs internal motions
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physical objects have vibrations inside that move them towards or away from something
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hobbs will=sum of motions
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he says there are things in you that move you
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hobbs associationism newtonian attraction the way your __________ pulls _____ ________
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the way your programmed pulls ideas together
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hobbs associationism continuity
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ideas that occur close together are pulled together
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voltaire was a _____ _____ in the ______. he was very ______ & ______
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voltaire was a french man in the 1700's he was very smart & cultural
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voltaire attacking mysticism and supporting metaphore of machine & assaults religion
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attacked religion machiens dont opperate due to spiritual religious stuff not connected to the battery things dont run
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voltaire 1755 lisbon earthquake what happened? why did this support skinner?
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huge disaster. happened on a sunday when ppl were in church, the churches fell aapart and ppl were smushed. voltaire used this and said "if God runs everything why did he schedule an earthquake for a time when the only ppl who wouldnt be squished were thoes who didnt go to church"
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voltaire candide (book)
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candide is a book he wrote. the church said this is the best of all possible worlds if only good things happened or visa versa it wouldnt cause us to be appreciative. this book is responding to it. in the book terrible things keep happening to the main char. hes saying things happen for machien like reasons
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Darwin & evolution
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in the 1800 darvwin popularized evolution theory
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history of the evolution
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darwin did not create the theory of evolution it was around thousands of yrs before him
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humans like animals according to darwin
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he said humans were like animals this went against religion because he said we live because we are able to adapt (machien like)
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Nature is not planned according to darwin
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religious belive things happen because its planned. darwin said that a self propelled lawn mower could crash or work well etc if left to its own devises
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darwin traits that "work"=survival
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in regard to humans & what we should be like. if you can aquire the traits to survive you can survive if you cant then you cant
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B.F. Skinner pulled the ______ _____ together. he was a _____ century psycologest. he argued that _________ his side _______ ___ it really _____
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BF skinner pulled the machien view together. he was a 20th century psycologest. he argued that although his side sounds bad it really helps
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BF skinner back ground childhood
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says his dad was a lawyer and this was influential in his childhood. his dad went by the law to a "T". he would always tell skinner exactly what to do or not to do no excuses, skinner said he used to do strange things like swim with water moccisins
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skinner background college
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he was an excalent literature student. he got a 4yr degree in english went to writ his great american novel and realized he had nothing to say. he went to harverd and majored in psycology. he went to take the PhD exam they asked him what language he wanted to be examined in he said german. skinner knew no german. he bluffed his way out by saying to the tester "you know german i know german lets go get a beer"
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skinner theroretical basis of his theory the problem of subjectivity
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says subjectivity screws everyone up. subjectivity is things you cant see taste hear smell feel... something inside you
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skinner subjectivity as a mystic tradition
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a lazy person is responsible for his lazyness. this is not a physical thing its a subjectivity. the same for good char bad char.
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skinner subjectivity as a mystic tradition (good vs bad) is everywhere in ________ & __________
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religion and literature
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skinner subjectivity as a mystic tradition personally satisfying
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personally satisfying because we can believe that theres something mystical like a soul that will live on when we die
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skinner knowledge of humans vs knowledge of the world (ancient greece & now)
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divide knowledge into humans & psysical world in ancient Greece there was more knowledge on humans than there was of the world to day there hasnt been much improvement on what we know about humans but a big improvement about the world
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skinner technology accepted in hard sciences not in study of humanity. when _____ _______ fall to the _____ they ____ speed as they ____
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keys solid objects fall to the earth & gain speed as they do so
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the past aristotles happy objects in relation to technology accepted in hard sciences
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objects gain speed as they fall to the earth because they are happy to return home
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lightbulb theory how many psycologists does it take to fix a person ?
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1 but the person must want to change. light bulbs do not
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famous subjectivity attempts in psychology by who & who
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E.B. Titchner, Freud,
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E.B. Titchner famous subjectivity attempt
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introspection was famous 100yrs ago. he had an idea of how to study the human mind. he said it was like a giant jigsaw puzzle, each study by its self seems trivial but when put to gether you get the big picture. introspection is: self report, example walk into a pitch black room and suddenly get hit with a spotlight. titchner would ask how did you feel when that light hit you? although lots of time was spent on this theory nothing came of it because its subjective
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Freud subjective attempt (trip to europe little boy on train)
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skinner said freudian therapy was also subjectivity and did not have such a good track reccord. james katell was planning a trip to europe he wrote to ask freud if they could meet up while he was there. frued aggreed. when james met him he didnt know what to say. finaly he started telling freud about a little boy he'd seen on the train there. when he had finished his story freud asked if the little boy was James Katell (in the way that shows freud wouldnt believe him if he said it wasnt)
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final results of subjective attempts were
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they were a dissappointment
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reliance upon unobservable data were
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the results of subjective attempts were a dissappointment because they exist on unobservable data
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the objective alternative says not to _____ the ____ because its _________. Skinner would not _____ the ____ or the _____ because he said they were _________
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dont study mind because its objective Skinner wouldnt study the mind or brain because he said they were objective
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objective alternative studying the mind brain is like
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brain is like a big black bow it has an object in it but you cant open it to figure out what it is
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objective alternative studying observable behavior like ockams razor
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only study behaviors you can see hear taste smell. you have to cut away behaviors that are not observable & believe the data only
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Goal of objective study
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prediction possible & control desirable
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goal of objective study prediction possible
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with great accuracy
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Goal of objective study control desirable
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if we applied skinner you could control someone. if you diagnose a medical condition you can control it with medication or treatment. skinners theory works like this
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skinners theory ____________ screws __ up. & the best __________ of ______ behavior is ____ behavior
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skinner says subjectivity screws us up. if you live according to his ideas you will have a good life. the best predicter of future behavior is past behavior
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skinners theory reinforcement
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humans do what they are reinforced to do. they do things that will be reinforced.
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reinforcement universal law
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reinforcement is like a natural law (like gravity)
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reinforcement operates noticed or unnoticed
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reinforcement is always there. you dont have to know about it for it to affect you
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skinners theory learning
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learning/programing:in any situation there are multiple behaviors a person could be doing. (example: if you do the right behavior all along {takeing notes in class studying etc} you will be reinforced with a good grade whereas if you dont you will will be reinforced with a grad thats not so good. most people choose the latter because of the right now feel good reinforcement.) there are zillions of behaviors to choose from at any moment
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skinners theory extinction
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a person does a behavior we dont like we want to extinguish it. in computer terms we want to erase it. to stop a behavior you take away the reinforcement
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skinners theory feedback
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knowledge of results. you need to know what to do (feedback) in order to do a behavior correctly (like hit a base ball or something)
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skinners theory shaping
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successive approxamations to a goal comming closer & closer to a goal. needs multiple small steps to give reinforcement (a statue is not carved after only one chisle)
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skinners theory types of reinforcers
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there are 2 types primary & secondary
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types of reinforcers primary
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people, we assume, will be reinforced to any one of these 4 things food (unless their full), water, sex, relief from pain
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types of reinfrocers secondary
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lots of these reinforcers are ones youve learned to value, like money or praise. these can be more powerful than the primary reinforcers,
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reinforcement schedules
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how often u recieve reinforcement
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reinforcement schedules continuous
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everytime you do the behavior
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reinforcement schedules fixed ratio
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(number) reinforced for a set # of responses. every ____ time. has to be bore than every one time because that would be couninuous.
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reinforcement schedules variable ratio
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is the most resistant to extinction. reinforced for # of responses but the number varrys from time to time (like a slot machien)
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reinforcement schedules variable interval
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reinforced for ______amount of time
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reinforcement schedules fixed interval
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reinforced by the hr or month or yr etc, a set interval that does not change
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reinforcement schedules resistance to extinction
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variable ratio
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learning differs by environment
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people will do what they are reinforced to do but if you change the envirenment you change the reinforcement
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aversive learning
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being reinforced with something you dont like so you dont do that behavior any more. either punishment or negative reinforcement
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aversive learning punishment
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conditional application of an adversive stymulus. (example: tell the child "if you take a cookie without permission im going to smack your hand. that is the condition)
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aversive learning negative reinforcement
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conditional removal of an adversive stymulus (example: if you do something i want you to do i willl take something bad out of your life)
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(tell what is used positive or negitive or punishment) coach says to a late student "i was flat out disgusted you were the last one here & im gonna run your tail off but come race day youll win a medal."
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positive reinforcement because he said "youll win a medal"
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(tell what is used positive or negitive or punishment)
coach says "what are you doing you jumped out of your can and started running before you were warmed up youll pull a mussle doing that" |
punishment because something bad will happen if they dont listen (youll pull a mussle if you dont do like i said and warm up first)
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(tell what is used positive or negitive or punishment)
student says "coach you were right a pulled a mussle." coach says "all right well heres some ice it will fix that mussle" |
negitive reinforcemetn taking something bad (pulled mussle) out of your life
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what are the rules of punishment?
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use positive and negitive reinforcement postly. use punishment as little as possible. thats the most effective way to achieve the desired behavior. they should be consistent or close in time and space or severe or rewarded alternative
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paradigm of reinforcement 4 things. ________ reinforcement, ________ reinforcement, __________, _______ of reinforcement
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positive reinforcement, negitive reinforcement, punishment, absence of reinforcement
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paradigm of reinforcement absence of reinforcement
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skinner says there is always reinforcementt
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the unimportance of intent the Vital importance of technique
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what you intend to do is not as important as the way you do it
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paradigm of reinforcement positive if you __ ____ something ____ will ______
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if you do this something good will happen
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paradigm of reinforcement negative reinforcement if you __ something i ____ you __ __ i will ____ something ___ ___ of your ____
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conditional removal of an adversive stymulus (example: if you do something i want you to do i willl take something bad out of your life)
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paradigm of reinforcement punishment if you __________.... i will ______....
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conditional application of an adversive stymulus. (example: tell the child "if you take a cookie without permission im going to smack your hand. that is the condition)
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mental disorders as a function of learning ________ behavior & ________________
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abnormal behavior & misconceptions
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mental disorders as a function of learning. abnormal behaviors. skinner says to ________ the way we ______ mental illness
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skinner says consider the way we define the mental illness
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cultural mental disorders as a function of learning. abnormal behaviors
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if your behavior is significantly outside the norm ppl will think your insane. we are reinforced by society to act normal
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personal mental disorders as a function of learning. abnormal behaviors
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personal idea of insanity, personally reinforced may enforce insane behavior.
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maladaptive mental disorders as a function of learning. abnormal behaviors
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should be best definition if you have been reinforced to do maladaptive behavior, behavior that will lead to bad results.
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mental disorders as a function of learning. misconceptions. bizarre
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off the wall if your mentally ill your off the wall not normal. thats not true, most people have just been reinforced to do these behaviors
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mental disorders as a function of learning. misconceptions. rare & shameful
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when filling out a job application it typically asks about health and we are fine with that, but if it asks about mental health we tend to get all defensive because we think its shameful
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personality disorders as a result of learning
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patterned behavior
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personality disorders as a result of learning APD
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Antisocial Personality Disorder. they are not violent. they tend to be inteligent good looking charming and 75% are males
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personality disorders as a result of learning APD hedonistic
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they love pleasure & will sacrafice anything for it. pleasure is sex & money
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personality disorders as a result of learning APD shallow relationship
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they sacrafice relationships. they figure out how to manipulate ppl.they like their friends but when they see an oppertunity to use somebody they allways act on it. they can lie up a storm & not think their doing something wrong. they really cant stop lying
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personality disorders as a result of learning obsessive compulsive
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2 types anxiety reaction & something you like. anxiety reaction is making up a game to ease anxiety (the tv plug guy who couldnt leave untill he had thrown the plug on the ground multiple times). something you like usually something society conciders good like making lots of money, you get praised and OD on this behavior & it becomes maladaptive (like someone with anarexia)
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personality disorders as a result of learning dependent personality
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you relie to much on other ppl. they are good at manipulating ppl. they play the weak card untill things stop going their way then they strongly lash out
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personality disorders as a result of learning histrionic
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drama king/queen. they love to manifacture drama the reinforcement is attention
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personality disorders as a result of learning borderline
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popular diagnosis today. when someone has this disorder they dont know anything about themselves & will play any role to fit in with any one they just want to please ppl & fit in
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personality disorders as a result of learning sadistic
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likes to hurt ppl either physically or not physically. they enjoy menuvering a situation so they have power and can stick it to you in a way that they can say is not them being mean just doing their job. sterotypical examples are poliece & college professers. reinforcement is being in a position of power
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skinners theory and the question of free will
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most contraversal against mystic
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skinners theory and the question of free will. pillar of subjectivity
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is an assumption not a fact
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skinners theory and the question of free will an assumption not a fact
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we assume we have free will even though its not a proven fact according to skinner
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the skinner rogers debate Skinners argument
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they held a debate in frount of a psychologest sociation. skinner argued that humans are wonderful machiens but we opperate like a simple machien. if there is more weight on one side of a tetertotter it will tip towards that siide. we are the same if something is more reinforcing we will go towards it. if we had free will it would be like saying "oh the tetertotter chose to go that way" no one could give him an example of when a person chose to go towards the lesser reinforcement. he said this is because we are programed to respond.
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skinner rogers debate rogers argument
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said he agreed that skinner had a strong argument but rogers argued "say were all hippies living in a commune. Im the leader & can reinforce you to do things, therefore i would have free will" skinner did not agree he said as the leader you were programed to reinforce the others
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skinner rogers debate conclusion
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everyone was rooting for rogers but at the end they had to admit skinner was the winner of the debate. (which is rare because there is not usually a clear winner to a debate)
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other evidence of an inner self. feelings
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emotions. we have a long tradition of machiens not feeling emotions.skinner says these too are programed in
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other evidence of an inner self. complex behavior
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skinner ssecretly trained a rat to find a way to get to the rats food no matter where skinner placed it. he then called his graduate students in and said he wanted their opinion on this humanistic rat. the rat stacked cardboard boxes on top of eachother to reach its food. the students were impressed but then skinner told them that he had been training the rat little by little for a long time
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other evidence of an inner self. creativity
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this is a reinforced mutation, an accident that ended up working in your favor
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other evidence of an inner self. sense of self
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you feel like the real you is inside looking out observing life. skinner said language explains this. when we grow up & use words certain words bring certain conitations to mind. some countries have words that only exist in that country and there for cannot be translated .
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the evils of subjectivity/free will.
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skinner pushes his theory because the beliefe in subjectivity is evil. (little kid is prepared to jump off a 10 story building because he in convinced santa is real and will catch him)
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the evils of subjectivity/free will. stops inquiry
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if we use these excuses we cant make things better. we cant change something we dont acknowledge. genes irresistible impulse or "im just that way"
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the evils of subjectivity/free will. genes irresistible impulse
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i dont know why i did that i just couldnt help my self sort of thing
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the evils of subjectivity/free will. im just that way
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self explanitory
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lack of understanding is dangerous. air plaine engineering
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everytime an airplane crashes they send a team to anilyze it and figure out the problem so they can fix it so it wont be a problem ever again.
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requirements for a human utopia according to skinner you must _______ subjectivity & ________ __ the ___ ghosts
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discard subjectivity & valley of the 10 ghosts
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requirements for a human utopia according to skinner you must get ___ of ____________
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you must get rid of subjectivity
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requirements for a human utopia according to skinner valley of the 10 ghosts story & what it means
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visit town on top of a mountain where conditions are miserable. theres a beautiful valley just down the mountain but the villagers are scared of the gardian ghosts (which are really just white sheets on big poles) our subjectivity is blocking us from utopia just like these sheets
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the armor of the great ghost (subjectivity) _______ & _______
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freedom & dignity
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the armor of the great ghost (subjectivity) freedom ________ of freedom is reinforcing
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rhetoric means the word so the word freedom is reinforcing and words are very powerful
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the armor of the great ghost (subjectivity) rhetoric freedom is misleading and dangerous. the scientific conference on world peace was what and did what
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a gathering of the smartest ppl in the world to try and figure out how to achieve world peace. nothing came of it because they all believed in free will and according to skinner there is no such thing as free will
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the armor of the great ghost (subjectivity) rheoric freedom is misleading and dangerous. no such thing as absence of control only scientific application of it. important to take responsibility
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it means choice "i can reject free will etc & focus on reinforcing/machien or i can keep wanting to change stuff for the better but keep believing in free will therefore not changing anything." in other words your choice is given the fact that theres no free will do we want to apply it scientifically or continue to be affected at random
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the armor of the great ghost (subjectivity) rheoric freedom is misleading and dangerous. no such thing as absence of control only scientific application of it. ugly lawn mower nice fairy analogy
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big ugly self propelling lawn mower cant tell the differance between flowers & grass so it just mowes all of it down. parents tell children that beautiful fairys cut the grass, kids ask why fairys cut flowers also & parents say they dont know. reinforcement is like this. its ugly to believe in but if we acknowledge & take control we can have the prettty flowers
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dignity leads to stupid and harmful behaviors charge of the light brigade
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english vs russians this is a english calvary they got in order and were given the order to charge into the artilary of the russians. they charged eventhough they knew it was suicidal because they didnt want their bravery/dignity to be questioned. most of them were killed for the word dignity
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dignity leads to stupid and harmful behaviors sam johnson & potatoes
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we will eat the burning hot potatoes for dignity. johnson, however, spat them back out because they were to hot.
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a designed culture working with gravity. we get ____ a lot ____ when we _______ & ______ gravity.
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we get hurt a lot less when we believe & accept gravity (machien like reinforcement)
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a designed culture values are _______ that ______ be __________
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values are things that should be reinforced
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punishment skinner says we ______ have very ______ punishment because it ____ not _____ you the _______ behavior
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skinner says we should have very little punishment because it does not teach you the right behavior
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punishment permissiveness is the belief that _________ is __. it is from being __________ in the _____ way. it makes you _____ in the _____ term but not the ____ term
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anything is ok. it is from being reinforced in the wrong way. it makes you happy in the short term but not the long term
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punishment control via reinforcement contingencies is a ____ term _____________
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is a long term reinforcement
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benefits of control skinner said these are ____ of the ________ of a __________ society: program for _________, program for "________ _____", a ____ world, & _____
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skinner said these are the benifits of a skinnarian society: program for diversity, program for "feeling free", a just world, & crime
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benefits of control program for diversity & "feeling free" we could _______ diversity & ______ to do as they ____. in this type of society you would _____ more able to be your ____ self
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in a skinnarian society we could program diversity & ppl to do as they want. in this type of society you would feel more able to be your true self
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benefits of control a just world would ___ be the _______ people who got ________ because of _____ it would be the ones who ________ ________ it.
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fair world would not be the pretty people who got benifits because of looks it would be the ones who actually deserved it
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benefits of control crime punishment ____ ___ work well so they would approach it with the _____________ technique. they would ____ ____ the _____________
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punishment doesnt work well so they would approach it with the reinforcement technique. they would take away the reinforcement
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leaders. people ___ the _______ would take __________ of things if they were in a __________ of ____ _____. skinner says ___ of course I see your concern. he suggests getting _______ who are __________ dictators and ___________ them into the ______
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people say the leaders would take advantage of things if they were in a position of high power skinner says yes of course they would i see your concern,. he suggests getting benevolent dictators and incorporating them into the system
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what is a benevolent dictator? why would incorporating them into the system benefit everyone
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benevolent dictator is someone who really cares for his people. this would help because everyone would win & lose together so it would inspire ppl not to screw each other
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behaviorism as a remedy for "mormal"problems. _________ in terms of _____________ is a ______ for ______ problems
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behavior in terms of reinforcement is a remedy for normal problems
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skinners big idea is all that counts is ________
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all that counts is bahavior not feelings or oh i was really going to do .... (actions speak louder than words)
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behaviorism is humanism...
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it has the distinction of being effective humanism
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behaviorism & humanism believe ___ ____ ______
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believe the same things. they both want what is best for ppl
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heuristics is the
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the study of heuristic methods and principles
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reliability
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Reliability describes how well a particular assessment method provides consistent results, regardless of who uses the method or when it is used.
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validity
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The state of being valid, authentic or genuine; Having legal force; A quality of a measurement indicating the degree to which the measure reflects the underlying construct, that is, whether it measures what it purports to measure (see reliability)
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spear man
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a soldier that fights with a spear
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multiple intelligences
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The theory of multiple(7) intelligences was proposed by Howard Gardner in 1983 to more accurately define the concept of intelligence and to address the question whether methods which claim to measure intelligence (or aspects thereof) are truly scientific.
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homeostasis
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Resistance to change. How the body maintains its internal equilibrium to insure proper functioning.
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arousal theory
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he Yerkes-Dodson law is an empirical relationship between arousal and performance, originally developed by psychologists, Robert M. Yerkes and John Dillingham Dodson in 1908. The law dictates that performance increases with physiological or mental arousal, but only up to a point. ...
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incentive theory
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ncentive theory in organizational theory, is a concept of human resources or management theory. In the corporate sense, it states that firm owners should structure employee compensation in such a way that the employees' goals are aligned with owners' goals.
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humanistic theory
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Humanistic psychology is a school of psychology that emerged in the 1950s in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis. It is explicitly concerned with the human dimension of psychology and the human context for the development of psychological theory.
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self actualization
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Self-actualization is a term that has been used in various psychology theories, often in slightly different ways (e.g., Goldstein, Maslow, Rogers). The term was originally introduced by the organismic theorist Kurt Goldstein for the motive to realize all of one's potentialities.
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james lange theory
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is the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli.
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denial
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the act of refusing to comply
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regression
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according to psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, is a defense mechanism leading to the temporary reversion of the ego to an earlier stage of development rather than handling unacceptable impulses in a more adult way.
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adler
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ell-known Austrian psychologist and medical doctor who founded the school of "individual psychology" which focuses on the holistic treatment of the individual.
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unconditional positive regard
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complete acceptance and caring of an individual, without imposing conditions.
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conditional positive regard
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acceptance and caring given to a person only for meeting certain standards of behaviour
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carl rogers
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Rogers: United States psychologist who developed client-centered therapy
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cattell
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American psychologist (born in England) who developed a broad theory of human behavior based on multivariate research (1905-1998
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eysenck
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British psychologist (born in Germany) noted for his theories of intelligence and personality and for his strong criticism of Freudian psychoanalysis
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MMPI
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innesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory: a self-report personality inventory consisting of 550 items that describe feelings or actions which the person is asked to agree with or disagree with; many scales estimating traits and qualities of personality have been developed using MMPI items
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TAT
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dministered by a highly trained professional, subject is shown a series of several cards depicting people in various situations. Subject is asked to tell a detailed story about each card. Story is then interpreted by professional
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