Psychology 1: Part 2/3

Front 1

blind spot

Back 1

A place on the retina where the axons of neurons converge to form the optic nerve, there is an absence of receptor cells.

Front 2

Mystery Spot illusion

Back 2

Visual illusions based on tilt-induced effects.

Front 3

hair cells

Back 3

Receptor cells for hearing, which are arranged in rows along the basilar membrant of the cochlea.

Front 4

moon illusion

Back 4

Illusion by which the moon appears larger when seen through the horizon and smaller when seen near the zenith, even though it is objectively the same size and distance from the iewer in either location.

Front 5

binocular disparity

Back 5

Cue for depth perception that stems from seperate (disparate) views that the two eyes have of any given visual object. The farther away the object is, the more similiar are th two views of it.

Front 6

receptive fields

Back 6

For any neuron in the visual system, the portion of the retina that, when stimulated by light, results in a change in electrical activity in the neuron.

Front 7

transduction

Back 7

Process by which a receptor cell (such as a rod or cone in the eye, or hair cell in the inner ear) produces an electrical change in response to the energy of a physical stimulus (such as light or sound).

Front 8

sensory neuron

Back 8

Neuron that carries messages from a sensory organ, through a nerve, into the brain or spinal chord.

Front 9

How is the eye like a camera?

Back 9

-lets light in through cornea, like a camera's aperture.
-amount of light controlled by pupil, like a camera's shutter.
-retina sends image to the brain, acting like a camera's film.

Front 10

How is the eye unlike a camera?

Back 10

-constantly and automatically reacting to light; focusing and refocusing. (Camera has to be adjusted).
-camera can focus on objects near and far at the same time. Eye cannot.

Front 11

cornea

Back 11

Curved, transparent tissue at the front of the eyeball that helps to focus light rays as they first enter the pupil to form an image on the retina.

Front 12

lens

Back 12

Transparent, biconvex body of the eye between the iris and the vitreous humor that focuses light rays entering through the pupil to form an image on the retina.

Front 13

iris

Back 13

Colored, doughnut-shaped, muscular structure in the eye, located behind the cornea and in front of the lens, that controls the size of the pupil and in that way, controls the amount of light that can enter the eye's interior.

Front 14

retina

Back 14

Thin membrane of cells that lines the rear interior of the eyeball; contains receptor cells for vision--rods and cones.

Front 15

forvea

Back 15

Pinhead-size area of the retina in which the cones are concentrated and that is specialized for high visual acuity.

Front 16

rods

Back 16

Receptor cells for vision located away from the forvea; important for seeing in dim light.

Front 17

cones

Back 17

Receptor cells located in and near the forvea, operate in moderate to bright light; important for the perception of color and fine detail.

Front 18

How do the properties of rods and cones explain dark adaptation?

Back 18

Cones are not stimulated in the dark, so it takes at least 10 minutes for the "cone vision" to switch to the "rod vision".

Front 19

How do we perceive colors?

Back 19

As wavelengths of light.

Front 20

trichromatic theory

Back 20

Color vision is mediated by three different types of receptors, each most sensitive to a different range of wavelength. Each receptor has a different photochemical. Est. in 1802 by Young and Helmholtz.

Front 21

opponent-process theory

Back 21

By Hering: neurons that mediate the perception of color are excited by one range of wavelengths and inhibited by another. Such neurons cancel out the perception of color when two complementary wavelengths are together.

Front 22

binocular disparity

Back 22

Cue for depth perception from seperate views that the 2 eyes have of any object. Farther away the object, the more similiar the 2 views of it.

Front 23

motion parallax

Back 23

Cue for depth perception from changed view of an object whenever one's head moves sideways to the object. Farther away the object, the smaller the change in view.

Front 24

occlusion

Back 24

The man partially cuts off the view of the house, which indicates that the man is closer to us than is the house. Near objects occlude the more distant ones.

Front 25

relative image size for familiar objects

Back 25

Image of the man is taller than that of the house. Because we know that people are not taller than houses, we take the man's larger image as a sign that he must be closer to us than is the house.

Front 26

linear perspective

Back 26

Lines marking the side of the driveway converge as they go from the man to the house--house is farther away. Parallel lines appear to converge as they become more distant.

Front 27

texture gradient

Back 27

Gradual decrease in the size and spacing of texture elements in a picture indicates depth.

Front 28

position relative to the horizon

Back 28

Objects nearer the horizon are usually seen as farther away than those that are displaced form the horizon, either up or down.

Front 29

differential lighting of surfaces

Back 29

Amount of light reflected from different surfaces varies as a function of the orientation of each surface with respect to the source of light--also as a function of shading from other objects. This is to create a sense of 3d.

Front 30

proximity

Back 30

A Gestalt principle. Objects that are near each other, we group together and see them as parts of the same object; those that are seperated as parts of a different object.

Front 31

similarity

Back 31

A Gestalt principle. Stimulus elements that physically resemble each other as parts of the same object and those that do not resemble each other as parts of a different object.

Front 32

closure

Back 32

A Gestalt principle. Tend to see forms as completely enclosed by a border; ignore gaps in the border--helps us to see complete forms even when they are partly covered by other objects.

Front 33

good continuation

Back 33

A Gestalt principle. When lines intersect, we tend to group the line segments to form continuous lines ith minimal change in direction.

Front 34

common movement

Back 34

A Gestalt principle. Stimulus elements move in the same direction and at the same rate, we see them as one object. Useful for seeing a camouflaged animal.

Front 35

good form

Back 35

A Gestalt principle. We try to see things as simple and uncluttered. Encompasses other principles.

Front 36

How do tilt-induced illusions work?

Back 36

Attributed to distorted frames of reference.

Front 37

What do tilt-induced illusions tell us about visual processes?

Back 37

They tell us that the eye concieves of everything as a whole.

Front 38

C fibers

Back 38

Pain sensory neuron.
Very thin, unmyelinated, slow-conducting.
Respond to all sorts of stimuli that produce pain, including strong pressure, heat and cold, and chemicals.
Slow, second wave of pain is mediated by the C fibers.

Front 39

A-delta fibers

Back 39

Pain sensory neuron.
Thick, myelinated, fast-conducting.
Specialized fibers to respond to either a pinprick, and some to heat or cold.
Fast, first wave of pain mediated by A-delta fibers.

Front 40

Pain sensory input is relayed where?

Back 40

Thalamus to three different brain areas for three aspects of pain experience.

Front 41

somatosensory cortex

Back 41

Sensory aspect of pain. Judgements of pain quality, location, and intensity.

Front 42

areas of limbic system

Back 42

Primary emotional and motivational aspects of pain. Immediate unpleasantness and a desire to escape.

Front 43

prefrontal cortex

Back 43

Secondary emotional and motivational aspects of pain. Suffering and worrying about the future.

Front 44

Draw the pain sensory input diagram.

Back 44

SEE DIAGRAM

Front 45

generalization

Back 45

Stimulus that resembles a conditioned stimulus will elicit the conditioned response, even though it has never been paired with the unconditioned stimulus, even though it has never been enforced.

Front 46

unconditioned stimulus

Back 46

Elicits reflexive response without an previous conditioning.

Front 47

conditioned stimulus

Back 47

Elicits a reflexive response (the conditioned response) because of its previous pairing with another stimulus (the unconditioned stimulus) that already elicits a reflexive response.

Front 48

unconditioned response

Back 48

Reflexive response that does not depend on previous conditioning.

Front 49

conditioned response

Back 49

Reflexive response that is elicited by a stimulus (the conditiond stimulus) because of the previous pairing of that stimulus with another stimulus (the unconditioned stimulus) that already elicits a reflexive response.

Front 50

Garcia effect

Back 50

Learning depends on the relevance of the stimuli to each other. IE, pairing bells and nausea wouldn't cause a learned response, but different stimuli can be associated.

Front 51

classical conditioning

Back 51

Training procedure in which a neutral stimulus (conditioned stimulus) comes to elicit a reflexive response through its being paired with another stimulus (unconditioned stimulus) that already elicits that reflexive response; studied by Pavlov.

Front 52

Thorndike's law of effect

Back 52

Response produces a satisfying effect=more likely to occur.

Response produces a discomforting effect=less likely to occur.

Front 53

Skinner's operant learning

Back 53

Composed of operant conditioning and the operant response.

Front 54

operant conditioning

Back 54

Learning process by which the consequence of a behavioral response affects the likelihood that the individual will produce that response again.

Front 55

operant response

Back 55

Any behavioral response that produces some reliable effect on the environment that influences the likelihood that the individual will produce that response again.

Front 56

habituation

Back 56

Decline in likelihood of a reflexive response that occurs when the stimulus is repeated several or many times in succession.

Front 57

spontaneous recovery

Back 57

Due to passage of time with no further testing or training--of a conditioned response that had previously undergone extinction.

Front 58

shaping

Back 58

Successively closer app. to the desired response are reinforced ntil the response finally occurs.

Front 59

extinction

Back 59

Gradual disappearance of a conditioned reflex that results when a conditioned stimulus occurs repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus. No longer followed by a reinforcer.

Front 60

positive reinforcement

Back 60

Condition in which a response results in a positive reinforcer, such as food or money.

Front 61

negative reinforcement

Back 61

Condition in which a response results in the removal of a negative reinforcer, such as the end of an electric shock or loud noise.

Front 62

punishment

Back 62

Process through which the consequence of a response decreases the likelihood that the response will reoccur.

Front 63

full schedule (reinforcement)

Back 63

Reinforces with every response.

Front 64

partial schedule (reinforcement)

Back 64

Reinforces not every response.

Front 65

Which reinforcement schedule is the most effective and why?

Back 65

Partial reinforcement schedule because one never knows when the reinforcer will stop responding. (Good for gambling!)

Front 66

biofeedback

Back 66

Training technique that enables someone to gain some voluntary control over automatic body functions.

Front 67

What is the basic learning principle of biofeedback?

Back 67

Desired response is learned when recieved information indicates that a specific thought or action has produced the desired response.

Front 68

What is the basic learning principle of gambling?

Back 68

Partial reinforcement keeps people gambling because they never know when they're going to win.

Front 69

What is the basic learning principle of advertising?

Back 69

The unconditioned stimulus (such as a happy scene) is paired with conditioned stimulus (beer).

Front 70

imprinting

Back 70

Lorenz's theory for a relatively sudden and irreversable form of learning that can occur only during some critical period of the individual's development.

Front 71

fixed action patterns

Back 71

Controlling mechanisms are "fixed" in the animal's nervous system by heredity and relatively unmodifiable by learning.

Front 72

sign stimulus

Back 72

Stimulus that elicits a fixed action pattern.

Front 73

mental rotation

Back 73

Ability to rotate objects in the mind. Takes place in the right cerebral hemisphere, along with perception.

Front 74

chunking

Back 74

Strategy for improving the ability to remember a set of items by grouping them mentally to form fewer items.

Front 75

elaboration

Back 75

Process of thinking about an item of information in such a way as to tie the item mentally to other information in memory, which helps to encode them into long-term memory.

Front 76

levels of processing

Back 76

Different methods of encoding informatio into memory have different levels of effectiveness.

Front 77

What are the levels of processing, going from less recalled to most recalled?

Back 77

Audible input
Visual input
Audible/visual input + physical output
Conceptual input

Front 78

schema

Back 78

Mental representation of a concept; information stored in long-term memory that allows a person to identify a group of different events or items as members of the same category.

Front 79

context-dependent memory

Back 79

Improved ability to retrive information from memory that occurs when an individual is in the same environment as that in which the memory was originally coded.

Front 80

What is the Atkinson and Shriffin information processing model of memory called?

Back 80

Multi-store model of memory (1968).

Front 81

What does the multi-store model of memory consist of?

Back 81

Three permanent structural components:
1. sensory memory
2. short term memory
3. long term memory

Front 82

Draw the multi-store model of memory diagram.

Back 82

SEE DIAGRAM

Front 83

working memory

Back 83

Memory store that is consiered to be the main workplace of the mind. Seat of conscious thought and reasoning.

Front 84

prefrontal cortex

Back 84

Associated with working memory functions.

Front 85

central executive

Back 85

Supervision of information integration.

Front 86

Draw the model of working memory by Baddeley.

Back 86

SEE DIAGRAM

Front 87

phronological loop

Back 87

Inner ear and inner voice, hearing and repeating syllables.

Front 88

visuo-spatial sketchpad

Back 88

Remembering shapes and colors, or the location/speed of an object; also spatial movements such as planning one's way out of a complex building.

Front 89

episodic buffer

Back 89

Memory of a story or movie scene.

Front 90

Stroop effect (attention)

Back 90

Printed color word (such as the word "red") interferes with a person's ability to name the color of ink in which the word is printed in the ink color is not the same as the word.

Front 91

filter model (attention)

Back 91

Stimuli are selected (for shadowing) according to their physical attributes. Unattended messages are not semantically processed and are discarded.

Front 92

switching model (attention)

Back 92

Switching attention from one stimulus to another is difficult.

Front 93

bottom-up processing

Back 93

In perception, mental processes that bring the individual stimulus features recorded by the senses together to form a perception of the larger object or scene.

Front 94

top-down processing

Back 94

In perception, mental processes that bring pre-existing knowledge or expectations about an object or scene to bear up the perception of that object/scene.

Front 95

Draw the bottom-up/top-down diagram.

Back 95

SEE DIAGRAM

Front 96

hippocampus

Back 96

Complex neural structure shaped like a seahorse; located on the floor of each lateral ventricle. Has central role in formation of memories.

Front 97

What is the role of the hippocampus in memory storage?

Back 97

Center of new memories and concious memories.

Front 98

amnesia

Back 98

Condition of memory loss for long or short intervals of time.

Front 99

implicit memory

Back 99

Influences one's behavior/thought.
Unconscious.
Long-term memory of skills (ie, how to ride a bike).
Not easily verbalized.
Used w/o thinking about it.

Front 100

explicit memory

Back 100

Can be consciously recalled.
Used to answer explicit questions about what one knows or remembers.
Called "declaritive" because it can be easily stated in words.

Front 101

generation effect

Back 101

Finding that self-generated stimuli are recalled and recongnized better than read stimuli.

Front 102

Elizabeth Loftus

Back 102

Misinformation effect, where memory is constructed, rather than played back like a tape.

Front 103

semantic memory

Back 103

Memory of meanings, understandings, and other factual knowledge.

Front 104

episodic memory

Back 104

Recollection of events and associated emotions. Can be likened to a written story.