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133 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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basic research
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research that addresses an important issue or problem but has no immediate practical consequences (knowledge for the sake of knowledge)
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applied research
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research designed to deal with an immediate practical problem that needs a solution
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biological psychologist
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explore links b/w brain and mind
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developmental psychologists
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study changing abilities from womb to tomb
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cognitive psychologist
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study how we perceive, think, and solve problems
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terri shiavo
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potassium deficiency, due to bulimia. vegetative state 15 years.
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personality psychologist
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investigate persistent traits (basic research)
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social psychologist
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explore how we view and affect one another (basic research)
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industrial/organizational psychologists
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study and advise on behavior in the workplace (applied research)
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clinical psychologists
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study, assess, and treat people with psychological disorders (applied research)
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theory
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organized set of concepts and propositions designed to account for, predict, and explain some set of phenomena
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hypotheses
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educated guesses, are derived from a theory that can be tested thru scientific research
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4 important characteristics of a theory
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1. it incorporates into a consistent, logical framework of what is already known
2. it produces new hypotheses and thereby predicts new observations 3. it adheres to the law of parsimoney: it is as simple as possible while still fully accounting for the phenomena it deals with 4. it is testable and can potentially be shown to be false |
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2 principles about scientific methods
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assumes that events follow lawful, casual principles
uses objective, systematic observation to determine what those principles are. |
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parts of nature
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ethological approach: study of behavior that emphasizes the importance of inherited traits or factors in behavioral development
focus on the study of "instinctive behaviors" |
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examples of nature
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migratory behavior, maternal behavior, imprinting, altruism
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imprinting
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konrad lorenz: rapid type of learning that takes place in single trial (critical sensitive period)
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nurture
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emphasis on role of environment and learning in behavioral development.
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John B Watson
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father of behaviorism: dozen healthy infants"
influenced by pavlov |
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modern synthesis
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darwin, evolution, etc.
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Gustav Fechner (mid 1800s)
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eminent german physicist who showed how mental processes could be studied by scientific method
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wilhelm wundty (late 1800s)
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german physician who founded discipline of "psychology." first experimental psychology laboratory in 1879. "elements of the mind," "introspection".
conscious experience made up of 3 elements: 1. sensations, 2. images, 3. feelings |
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structuralism and founder
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edward tichener (wundt's student)
structuralism used introspection (looking in) to explore the elemental structure of the human mind "elements of the human mind" |
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max wertheimer, kurt koffka, wolfgang kohler
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early 1900s, founded school konwn as gestalt psychology, "organized whole"
Principle of "the whole is greater than sum of its parts", picture of face with sea creatures |
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william james, john dewey, US late 1800s
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founded school known as functionalism, influenced by darwin
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apparent motion
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gestalt principle: example: series of stationary arrows appear as though first arrow is moving to the right
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functionalism
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how behavioral processes function: how they enable organism to adapt, survive, and flourish
"stream of consciousness" how mind functions benefit the organism importance of adaptation, repeated adaptive actions become habits mental processes are personal and unique, continually changing and evolving over time, and selective in terms of what one perceives and attends to and how this helps the individual to adapt to environmental changes |
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mary calkins
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finished requirements for harvard phD under william james but was denied her degree. became first female president of american psychological association (APA) in 1905
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sigmund freud
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vienna, early 1900s. psychoanalytical theory "personality theory and role of unconscious processes
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models of psychology 5
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neuroscience or biological model: role of nervous system, endocrine system and genetics
psychodynamic model: role of unconscious processes and drives behavioral model: observable behavior, role of environmental conditions and learning humanistic model: inherent goodness in people, role of self concept cognitive model: role of thought, attention, expectation |
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psychology's 3 main levels of analysis: biopsychosocial approach
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biological, psychological, and social-cultural influences
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biological influences:
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genetic predispositions, genetic mutations, natural selection of adaptive physiology and behaviors, genes responding to the environment
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psychological influences
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learned fears and other learned expectations, emotional responses, cognitive processing and perceptual interpretations
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social-cultural influences
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presence of others, cultural, societal, and family expectations, peer and other group influences, compelling models (media)
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why study psychology? intuition...
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limits of intuition: personal interviewers tend to be overconfident of their gut feelings about job applicants
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hindsight bias
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"i knew it all along" phenomenon. we tend to believe, after learning about an outcome, that we would have foreseen it. we knew that the dot.com stocks would plummet, only after they did
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the scientific attitude
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composed of curiosity (passion for exploration), skepticism (doubting and questioning), and humility (humbleness to accept when wrong)
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research and observations
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research methods used to test hypothesis and results or outcomes
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can lab experiments illuminate everyday life?
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artificial lab conditions are created to study behavior in simplistic terms. goal is to find underlying principles that govern behavior
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does behavior depend on one's culture?
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even when specific attitudes and behaviors vary across cultures, the underlying processes are much the same
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does behavior vary with gender?
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yes biology determines our sex, and then culture further bends the genders. yet in many ways women and men are similarly human
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why do psychologists study animals?
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study of animals gives us understanding of many behaviors that may have common biology across animals and humans
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is it ethical to experiment on animals?
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yes. to gain insights to devastating and fatal diseases. all researchers who deal w/ animal research are required to follow ethical guidelines in caring for these animals
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is it ethical to experiment on people
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yes, experiments that do not involve any kind of physical or psychological harm that is beyond normal levels encountered in daily life can be carried out.
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is psychology free of value judgments
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no, psychology emerges from people who subscribe to a set of values and judgments.
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is psychology potentially dangerous?
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it can be, but it isn't. the purpose of psychology is to help humanity with its problems, like war, hunger, prejudice, crime, family dysfunction, etc.
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research principles and practices (7)
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standardization: apply every procedure in a consistent, precise manner.
operational definition: reducing ambiguity by defining variables in terms specific measurement operations generalization: applying research findings to an entire population not just the sample in one study validity: ensuring that experiment measures what it is supposed to measure reliability: ensuring that the results can be repeated in more than one experiment replication: repeating study to determine whether or not same results can be achieved programmatic research: carrying out logical sequence of related studies, all moving toward common goal of understanding |
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case study example: clinical study
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clinical study is a form of case study where therapist investigates the problems associated with a client.
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correlation
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when one trait or behavior accompanies another. correlation coefficient: r, positive or negative indicates direction of relationship. number indicates strength of relationship, 0->1.
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careful about correlation b/c
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correlation don't imply causation
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illusory correlation
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perception of a relationship where none exists. parents conceive children after adoption.
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double-blind procedure
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in evaluating therapies it is important to keep patients and experimenter's assistants blind to which patients got real treatment and which placebo.
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neuroglia or glial cells
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supportive cells that assist in neural communication. outnumber neurons by as much as 50 to 1
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cranial nerves
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nerves emerging from base of brain (some are for autonomic functions)
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sympathetic nervous system (arousing)
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up: pupil heartbeat, glucose release by liver, section of epinephrine, norepinephrine, ejaculation
down: digestion, bladder |
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unlike other cells of the body, neurons...
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protruding processes or extensions from cell body called neurites. neurites include dendrites, axons with myelin sheath, synapses.
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directional flow of information in most neurons
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synapse, dendrite, soma (cell body), axon, synapse
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action potential
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sodium comes in, potassium goes out.
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axon hillock
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cell body-axon junction
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numbers in action potential
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-70-+40
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action potential consistency
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each time neuron fires, it transmits impulse of same amplitude (size and shape) and speed. it's independent of intensity of stimulus that initiated as long as it exceeds threshold.
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speed of unmyelinated verses myelinated
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un: 10 m/s
myelinated: 150, up to 15 times faster |
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two types of chemical synapses:
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ligand-gated ion channel: fast, ionotropic: neurotransmitter binds to receptor sites, channels open and ions flow through inside.
G-protein coupled receptor: slow, metabotropic: neurotransmitter binds to receptor, which activates g-protein, which modulate ion channels, which opens ion channels, and ions flow across membrane. |
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agonist
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mimics neurotransmitter
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antagonist
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blocks neurotransmitter
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dopamine
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influence movement, learning, attention, emotion. related to parkinson's and schizophrenia with excess activity at dopamine receptors
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serotonin
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affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal. prozac raise serotonin levels
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norepinephrine
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involved in alertness and arousal
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GABA
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gamma-aminobytyric acid: major inhibitory neurotransmitter. implicated in eating and sleeping disorders
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acetylcholine
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involved in muscle contractions, learning, memory. associated with alzheimer's
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endorphins
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natural opiate-like neurotransmitter. paincontrol and feelings of pleasure or euphoria
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neuroendocrine cells
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blend neuronal and endocrine mechanisms
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hormones
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chemical substance produced by body and transported in blood stream to target organ
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endocrine system parts (8)
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hypothalamus: control pituitary gland
thyroid glad: metabolism pituitary gland: secretes hormones, some affect other glands parathyroids: regular level of calcium in blood adrenal gland: inner part, medulla helps trigger fight or flight pancreas: regulates level of sugar in blood ovary and testis: secretes sex hormones. |
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brain stem
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(hindbrain) medulla, pons: life-sustaining functions such as breathing, heart rate, coughing, digestion, etc.
medulla: vital reflexes such as breathing, heart rate, vomiting, sneezing, etc. portions of reticular formation (arousal) Pons: contains nuclei of some of cranial nerves, portions of reticular formation cerebellum: fine motor control and coordination |
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midbrain
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reflexive behaviors linked to auditory and visual perception; pain perception; gross sensorimotor function
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reticular formation
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a network of neurons in the medulla and other parts of the brain stem
descending portion controls certain motor functions and the spinal cord ascending portion sends output to much of the cerebral cortex, selectively increasing arousal and attention in one brain area or another. |
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forebrain (diencephalon)
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hypothalamus and limbic system: motivation and emotion
neocortex (outer layer of cerebrum): elaboration of sensory and motor functions, cognition, language, etc. thalamus: sensory relay for vision, audition, somatosensory information to the neocortex hypothalamus: feeding, drinking, sex, temperature regulation, sleep-wakefulness, aggression organizes behaviors related to survival: fighting, feeding, fleeing, mating controls endocrine system and autonomic nervous system |
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limbic system
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emotion and motivation, contains hypothalamus, amygdala (fear and anxiety), and hippocampus (memory)
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cerebrum
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portion of the brain that sits on the brain stem, it plays a role in complex adaptive processes (learning, perception and motivation)
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cerebral cortex
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layer of neural tissue covering the cerebral hemispheres of humans and other mammals (like bark of a tree)
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corpus callosum
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connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres
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frontal lobe
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planning of movements, some aspects of memory, inhibition of inappropriate behavior
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parietal lobe
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body sensations
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occipital lobe
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vision
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temporal lobe
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hearing, advanced visual processing
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precentral gyrus
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primary motor cortex
output: motor cortex, left hemisphere section controls the body's right side |
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postcentral gyrus
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primary somatosensory cortex
input: sensory cortex, left hemisphere section receives input from the body's right side |
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procedures that have been used to determine hemispheric specialization
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clinical observations: brain tumors, brain damage, disease
WADA test: anesthetization of one cerebral hemisphere surgical procedures: commissurotomy (split-brain preparation) |
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broca's area
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frontal lobe, lower region of motor cortex, impairment in language production
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wernicke's area
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superior temporal gyrus and adjacent parietal lobe, impairment in language comprehension
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aphasia
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language impairment caused by brain damage to left inferior frontal lobe, lower region of motor cortex or dysfunction.
difficulty in language production (spoken or sign) non-fluent, slow, laborious speech (telegraphic) agrammatism (deficits in grammar) anomia (difficulty finding words) adequate comprehension (although not normal) |
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wernicke's aphasia (receptive)
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caused by damage to left superior temporal lobe and adjacent parietal cortex (auditory association cortex)
adequate articulation (fluent and unlabored) poor comprehension anomia (difficulty finding words) paraphasia (wrong words or wrong usage of words) inability to convert thoughts to words impairment in recognition of spoken words unintelligible speech |
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visual cortex
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receives written words as visual stimulation
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angular gyrus
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transforms visual representation into an auditory code
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motor cortex in language
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word is pronounced
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left hemisphere
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phonetic, sequential, analytical, propositional, discrete temporal analysis, language
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right hemisphere
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nonlinguistic, holistic, synthetic, gestalt, form perception, spatial
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continuity/stages
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is development a gradual continuous process, or does it proceed thru a sequence of separate stages?
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stability/change
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do early personality traits persist thru life, or do we become different persons as we age?
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teratogens
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environmental agents that can cause damage or death to the embryo or fetus (drugs, alcohol, etc.)
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moro
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reflex where stimulus is loud noise or loss of support, and response is legs up, back arches, arms forward
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babinski
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stimulus: touch sole of food, and response is toes spread out.
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overproducing of neurons
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peaking around 28 billion at 7 months, mostly at frontal lobe, for rational thought.
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maturation
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development of brain unfolds based on genetic instructions. various bodily and mental functions to occur in sequence. stand before walk, etc.
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cognitive development
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piaget believed driving force behind intellectual development is our biological development amidst experiences with the environment. our cognitive development is shaped by errors we make.
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schemas
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a concept or framework that organizes and interprets info. mental molds in which we pour out experience. we use and adjust our schemas by two important processes, assimilation and accommodation.
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assimilation
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placing new info in existing schema
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accommodation
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revising mental structures to make new schema. dog? no, horse.
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sensorimotor
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birth to 2 years: experiencing the world thru senses and actions (looking, touching, mouthing, grasping). development of coordination, reflexes, move from trial-and-error to deliberate activity, imitation, magical thought, increasingly deliberate manipulation of environment. object permanence (up to 6 months), stranger anxiety
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preoperational
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2-6: representing things with words and images but lacking logical reasoning. generalization, perception bound, functional relationship, symbolic object representation, mental operations irreversible, object identity, pretend play, egocentrism, language development.
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concrete operational
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7-11: thinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations. conservation, mathematical transformation, reversible mental operations, quantitative skills, inferred reality - inductive reasoning.
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formal operational
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12-adulthood: abstract reasoning. abstract logic, potential for mature moral reasoning. deductive reasoning, systematic generation of combinations of elements, considers hypothetical situations.
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important points about piaget's theory
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1. child actively manipulates the environment
2. metaphor of child as "little scientist" 3. universal stage theory 4. pattern in which children acquire abilities is stable, regardless of what age child is 5. Piaget was interested in progressive order of stages |
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stranger anxiety
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fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age
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attachment
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emotional tie with another person seeking closeness to a caregiver and distress on separation
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2 hypo about attachment
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1. need fulfillment: attachment is based on primary need fulfillment of feeding. attachment happens because of reinforcement
2. evolutionary theory: attachment is evolved mechanism that developed in order to protect the infant and thereby promote survival of species |
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secure vs insecure attachment
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secure: placed in strange situation, they explore happily in presence of mothers, when mothers leave, they show distress (60%)
insecure: children cling to their mothers or caregivers, and don't explore environment. (30%) |
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harlow
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monkey with 2 moms. infant monkeys raised with wire surrogate mothers develop autistic-type behaviors. monkeys experience great anxiety if terry-cloth mothers were removed.
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self concept
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sense of one's identity and personal worth emerges around 6 months. around 15-18 months, they can recognize themselves in the mirror. by 8-10, their self-image is stable.
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child-rearing practices (3)
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authoritarian: parents impose rules and expect obedience
permissive: parents submit to children's demands authoritative: parents are demanding but responsive to their children |
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brain development
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neural growth: increase in connections
selective pruning: unused neuronal connections are lost to make other pathways more efficient |
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a tale of two systems
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limbic: matures before frontal cortex
frontal: increased myelination impulsive decisions driven by emotion rather than reason. |
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cognitive development of adolescents
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they can think about
1. their own thinking 2. what others are thinking 3. think about what others are thinking about them 4. how ideals can be reached 5. critical thinking: criticize society, parents and even themselves. |
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kohlberg's stages of moral development
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development of moral reasoning: thinking that occurs when considering right and wrong. moral dilemmas.
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preconventional morality
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before age 9, children show morality to avoid punishment or gain reward.
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conventional morality
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by early adolescence social rules and laws are upheld for their own sake
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postconventional morality
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affirms people's agreed-upon rights or follows personally perceived ethical principles.
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moral feeling
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goes beyond moral thinking; the gut feelings that guide moral decisions. brain's emotional areas light up when nature of moral dilemmas are emotion-driven.
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moral action
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doing the right thing. develop empathy for others. self-discipline to restrain own impulses
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parent influence
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religiousity, career choices, political views
positive relationship with parents supports positive relationships with peers. |
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peer influence
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talk, dress style
friendships, cliques emotional well-being |
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emerging adulthood
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18-25, "unsettled" phase, no longer adolescent, not yet adult. extended education, reliance on parents.
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