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62 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What opinions did Machiavelli and Benjamin Franklin have regarding punishment?
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Machiavelli: fear of punishment protects us. Franklin: "Those who are feared, are hated."
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What percentage of Americans approve of the use of physical (corporal) punishment in schools? (p. 189)
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About 50% (Gallup & Elam, 1988)
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Define punishment in terms of its three characteristic features.
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Providing consequences that reduce the strength of behavior. 1. Behavior must have consequence. 2. Behavior must decrease in strength. 3. Reduction in strength must result from consequence.(Charles Canatania's reinforcement concept)
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What are punishers? (p. 190)
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The consequences involved in punishment.
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What are the two types of punishment? (pp. 190-193)
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Positive and negative punishment: positive punishment adds an aversive event (stimulus), negative punishment removes a stimulus (usually a positive stimulus, which removal is aversive). Negative punishment = penalty training.
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Describe how punishment differs from negative reinforcement. (p. 192)
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Punishment reduces behaviors, negative reinforcement increases behaviors. Negative reinforcement removes an aversive stimulus. Positive punishment adds an aversive stimulus.
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Describe how the contingency variable influences the effectiveness of punishment.
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The greater the degree of contingency between behavior and punishment, the faster behavior changes. Ie. The more likely it is that pushing a lever result in a shock, the more likely it is to reduce lever pushing.
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Provide and recognize original examples of the contingency variable as it is involved in making punishment effective. (pp. 193-195)
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If I slap Justin's hand every time he tries to steal a pop, the greater the contingency, the faster he will learn.
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Describe how the contiguity variable influences the effectiveness of punishment.
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The greater the contiguity the faster the learning (ie. The longer the delay the less effective the procedure)
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Provide and recognize original examples of the contiguity variable as it is involved in making punishment effective. (pp. 195-196)
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If I immediately slap Justin's hand after he tries to steal a pop, he is likely to learn from it. If I wait for a minute, he is less likely to learn from it.
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Describe how Abramowitz and O'Leary (1990) demonstrated the relative effectiveness of immediate punishment in examining off-task behavior. (pp. 195-196)
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Sudied effect of immediate and delayed reprimands on "off-tast" behavior of hyperactive first and second graders. When teachers repreimanded students immediately, it was effective in suppressing forms of off-task behavior in which child interacted with another student. Delayed reprimands were useless.
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Describe how the intensity of punishment influences its effectiveness.
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The more intense, the more effective.
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Provide and recognize original examples of this influence (the intensity of punishment). (pp. 197-198)
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If I slap Justin's hand hard when he steals pop, it would be more effective than if I pat his hand gently. A single large doze of punishment is more effective than frequent small doses (the opposite of reinforcement)
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Both Thorndike and Skinner performed experiments that showed that punishment was ineffective in reducing the strength of responding. What was wrong with these experiments? (pp. 197-198)
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The punishers were very weak, and therefore ineffective.
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Explain why the initial selection of punishment intensity is important in making punishment effective.
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Miller: rats were exposed to small electric shock when they entered alley, gradually increased intensity. Eventually, they endured far larger shocks than they would have if started on higher dose. (souds like habituation). Jules Masserman found same with cats. Text says nothing about control groups
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Provide and recognize original examples of this influence. (the initial selection of punishment intensity)
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Telling a client no instead of restraining them immediately. Police officer who requests compliance rather than pulling out the gun immediately.
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Describe the implications this has for parents, teachers, and judges. (pp. 198-199) (the initial selection of punishment intensity)
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We often start with small punishments, then increase the intensity, as if trying to train the individuals to resist larger punishments.
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Describe how the effectiveness of punishment is influenced by the reinforcers available for the punished behavior.
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If a behavior produces reinforcement, it may persist despite aversive consequences (Azrin & Holz). Reed and Yoshino punished rat lever pressing with loud noise. If the rats always got food, they would often persist. With no food, lever pressing would decrease. Rosenhan: admitted to mental hospital. Staff ignored normal behavior, punished abnormal behavior. Giving the attention probably reinforced behavior as well as punish it.
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Provide and recognize original examples of this influence. (reinforcers available for the punished behavior)
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Justin gets pop sometimes when he tries to steal it, in spite of our disapproval. That occasional success is shockingly resilient.
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Describe how inappropriate behavior in a psychiatric hospital was differentially reinforced (Rosenhan, 1973). (pp. 199-200)
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Rosenhan admitted to mental hospital. Staff ignored normal behavior, punished abnormal behavior. Giving the attention probably reinforced behavior as well as punish it.
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Describe how the availability of sources of reinforcement for alternative behaviors influences the effectiveness of punishment.
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If there is an alternative means of obtaining reinforcement, punishment is more likely to completely supress original behavior.
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Provide and recognize original examples of this influence. (p. 200) (the availability of sources of reinforcement for alternative behaviors influences the effectiveness of punishment. )
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Herman and Azrin: male psych patients would endure loud, annoying sound to obtain reinforcers. However, if there was alternative way to get the reinforcers, they chose those options. If Justin is able to get pop in other ways, he is less likely to try stealing it, which results in disapproval or being restrained.
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Explain how the level of deprivation influences the effectiveness of punishment.
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Higher the level of deprivation, the greater the resistance to punishment.
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Provide and recognize original examples of this influence. (pp. 200-202)how the level of deprivation influences the effectiveness of punishment.
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A man dying of thirst in the desert will probably crawl through thorn bushes for a drink at a pool. A man who is not thirsty probably wont.
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What is the disruption theory of punishment?
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Aversive stimuli produce disruptive effects that are incompatible with the behavior being punished. (However, the theory seems to suggest that this is because punishers increase the amount of time an organism spends doing something incompatible with the behavior, not that the punishers interfere specifically when those behaviors are about to occur).
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Describe the evidence that supports/refutes this (the disruption theory of punishment) theory. (pp. 202-203)
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1 effects of punishment are not that transient. (I don't get it, but I think this means the effects of punishment can be quite permanent, meaning the punishment does not need to continue occurring to prevent the behavior from recurring) 2. punishment has a greater suppresive effect on behavior than aversive stimulation that is independent of behavior.
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Describe the two-process theory of punishment.
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Says punishment involves both Pavlovian and operant procedures. Operant conditioning pairs behavior with an aversive. Then, Pavlovian conditioning makes that behavior a CS for the UR.
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Describe the evidence that supports/refutes this theory (the two process theory of punishment). (pp. 203-204)
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Predicts that punisment will reduce responses in proportion to their proximity to the punished behavior. E.g. Mansfield and Rachlin had pigeons peck right disk, then left disk. Punished them with shock when they pecked the left disk. Should have decreased pecking left disk, but pecking of both disks occurred simultaneously.
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Describe the one-process theory of punishment.
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Only operant conditioning involved. Punishment decreases behavior in the same way reinforcement strengthens it. Makes punishment a parallel to reinforcement. In other words, punishment causes a reduction in behavior in order effect a reduction in the aversive. Mirror image of Premack's principle: which is that high probability behavior should reinforce low probability behavior. One process theory suggests low probability behavior will punish high probability behavior.
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Who originally advocated this idea (the one process theory of punishment)?
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Thorndike (he recanted his thoughts because the test punishments he used were too weak.
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Describe the evidence that supports/refutes this theory. (pp. 204-205) (the one process theory of punishment)
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(Mazur) Hungry rat made to run (low probability behavior) following eating (high probability behavior) it will eat less.
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Why is punishment used so frequently? Explain in terms of the effects of punishment, including the beneficial side-effects. (p. 205)
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It is effective (ie. Reinforcing), powerful (punished behavior may entirely disappear). Fast (needn't continue for days or weeks.If it will work, it begins to work immediately. Beneficial side effects: TREATMENT OF AUTISTIC CHILDREN: Lichstein and Schreibman found they became more sociable, cooperative, affectionate, likely to make eye contact, and more likely to smile.
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What are the potential problems associated with the use of punishment? Describe each problem, citing evidence. (pp. 205-209)
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Escape, aggression, apathy, abuse, imitation of the punisher.
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Problems of punishment: escape
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Rat was shocked and fed while pressing lever. Learned to press lever while lying on its back. We escape by tuning out, cheating, lying, etc. Ultimate escape: suicide.
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Problems of punishment: aggression
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Often used when escape impossible. Animals will attack other animals after being shocked, or inanimate objects. People do the same: husband hits wife, wife hits child, child hits dog.
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Problems of punishment: apathy
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If escape and aggression are not possible, the best thing to do may be nothing. Rats who were punished when entering either of two passages stayed in the entryway. (Warden and Aylesworth). Students who's teachers reprimand them for asking stupid questions may stop asking any questions.
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Problems of punishment: abuse
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Corporal punishment in schools has resulted in broken bones, ruptured blood vessels, hematomas, muscle and nerve damage, whiplash, spinal injuries, and even death (Gursky 1992)
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Problems of punishment: imitation of the punisher
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Passing punishment on to other associates (ie. Younger siblings)
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What is response prevention?
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Altering environment to prevent troublesome behavior from ocurring. (ie. Put the china out of reach rather than punish child for playing with it).
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Provide and recognize original examples of response prevention as an alternative to punishment. (pp. 209-210)
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A child who bites his hands may be made to wear boxing gloves. Justin stealing pop can be stopped by removing pop from the house.
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Describe the use of extinction as an alternative to punishment.
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Remove the reinforcers that maintain a behavior and it will decrease. Ie. Adult attention, even when meant as punishment, often reinforces behavior. Loud reprimands intended to punish often reinforce.
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When is extinction an attractive alternative to punishment?
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When the reinforcer that maintains the unwanted behavior can be identified and removed.
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When are there problems with using extinction as an alternative to punishment? (pp. 210-211)
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When there is an extinction burst (an increase in the behavior as extinction begins), emotional outbursts, especially aggression and angry displays. In short: problems often get worse before getting better. Alternating extinction with reinforcement may increase the rate of behavior. Sometimes the reinforcers are not under our control.
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What is differential reinforcement?
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Using extinction in combination with differential reinforcement. Several forms: DRL, DRO, DRI, DRA
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Define a DRL schedule of reinforcement.
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Differential Reinforcement of Low rate. Reinforcers provided, but only when it occurs infrequently. E.g. pigeon disk pecking only rewarded if pigeon waits 2 seconds to peck disk, then 5 seconds, 10, 30, etc. Could reduce grumbly behavior.
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Provide and recognize original examples of DRL schedules of reinforcement. (pp. 211-212)
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Buying Victor new goggles if he waits for at least a week before asking for them, then every month, then every year.
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Schedules of reinforcement comment
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Comment: A schedule of reinforcement is simply a rule that specifies when a behavior should be reinforced. In the case of a DRL (differential reinforcement of low-rate) schedule, reinforcement is dependent on a maximum number of responses emitted during a given time period. So, for example, a DRL schedule might specify that two or fewer responses per minute is the criterion for reinforcement.
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Define a DRO schedule of reinforcement.
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Differential reinforcement of zero responding. Reinforcement is contingent on not performing the behavior. For example, pigeons pecking disks are reinforced only if they do not peck for 2 seconds, then 3, then 5, etc.
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My addition: difference between DRL and DRO
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DRL reinforces the behavior of interest at end of interval, DROreinforcers are provided only if the behavior does not occur. THIS IS STILL OBSCURE. THE DIFFERENCE SEEMS INSIGNIFICANT. WHEN WOULD ONE BE USED AND NOT THE OTHER? ASK TUTOR?
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Provide and recognize original examples of DRO schedules of reinforcement. (p. 212)
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Buying Victor new goggles every week if he doesn't ask for them., then every month, then every year.
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Additional DRO definition
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Comment: A DRO schedule of reinforcement is sometimes called a differential reinforcement of other behavior schedule because it reinforces behavior other than the specified target behavior.
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Define a DRI schedule of reinforcement.
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Differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior. Ie. Moving rapidly is incompatible with moving slowly.
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Provide and recognize original examples of DRI schedules of reinforcement. (p. 212)
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Reinforcing eating healthy but not eating poorly. Praise students sitting at their desks, ignore those walking about the room.
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Define a DRA schedule of reinforcement.
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Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior.
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Provide and recognize original examples of DRA schedules of reinforcement. (p. 213)
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Original: teach Victor to use the iPad to talk to me instead of yelling. Car and Durand: four children who engaged in disruptive behaviors; taught them alternative ways of getting what reinforced their disruptive behaviors. After brief training period, 90% reduction in unacceptable behavior. Wilder and co: reduced bizarre speech in psychotic patient. Listed and replied to sensible comments, looked away and were quiet when he spoke nonsensically.
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Distinction between DRI and DRA. I thought DRA would simply mean that the alternative does not have to be incompatible with the undesirable behavior. E.g. a student who wants the teacher's attention yells. Teacher reinforces ringing the bell, but someone could yell and ring the bell at the same time.
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Comment: In the conceptual exercise in this unit, you will be asked to discriminate among examples of DRO, DRI, and extinction. Examples of DRA (differential reinforcement of alternative behavior) are not included. One problem in this section is that the author does not clearly distinguish between DRI and DRA. He notes that DRA involves the reinforcement of desirable alternative behaviors, but anyone who would bother to use a DRI procedure would select an incompatible desirable behavior to reinforce, anyway (why wouldn't you?). As such, you need not make a distinction between DRI and DRA. You may assume that DRI includes instances in which a desirable incompatible behavior is reinforced.
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Define noncontingent reinforcement and describe its use to weaken undesirable behavior.
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Reinforcement delibered without regard to behavior. Identify reinforcers that maintain unwanted behavior, provide them regularly regardless of what they are doing.
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Provide and recognize original examples of the use of noncontingent reinforcement.
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Giving Justin pop at the same time every day, regardless of what he does.
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What problems can arise when using noncontingent reinforcement? (pp. 213-214)
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Could backfire and reinforce the unwanted behavior, reinforce other unwanted behaviors.
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More on noncontingent reinforcement
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Comment: Noncontingent reinforcement is also called response independent reinforcement. Although noncontingent reinforcement can weaken behavior, other techniques (i.e., DRO and DRI) are preferred to noncontingent reinforcement because they explicitly rule out reinforcement of the undesirable behavior or proactively reinforce different behaviors that are desirable. Noncontingent reinforcement simply dispenses reinforcers indiscriminately, ignoring the behaviors that may be reinforced in the process.
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My addition:
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Autistic and retarded people who injure selves often benefit from having this behaviour suppressed by punishment (Axelrod 1983, Newsom et al 1983, Van Houten 1983) (p. 209 of text)
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My addition: extinction burst
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When there is a sudden increase in the behavior as extinction begins.
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