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131 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Motivation |
Motivation is the driving force to achieve desired goals |
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Theory |
A framework to organize explain observations |
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Hypothesis |
A prediction about what will happen if the theory is correct |
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Data |
Information collected to evaluate the hypothesis of a research study |
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Applications |
Develop ways to apply this knowledge in order to modify their reality |
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Motives |
Internal processes that energize, direct, and sustain behavior Energy - give behaviour strength Direction - behavior has purpose Persistence - behaviour has endurance |
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Internal motives |
Determine behaviour Ex. Needs, cognition, emotions |
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Antecedents to internal motives |
Influence internal motives Ex. External events or social context |
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Internal Motives: Needs |
Conditions necessary to sustain life, growth, and well-being Important because they generate wants, desires, and thus motivate behaviour Ex. Food and water |
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Internal Motive: Cognitions |
Thoughts, beliefs, expectations, plans, goals, strategies, appraisals, attributions, and the self-concept Motivate based on striving to meet expectations, follow through on plans, Etc. |
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Internal motives: emotions |
Complex reactions to significant events in our lives, allows us to act adaptively Feelings - subjective verbal descriptions of emotional experience Arousal - bodily mobilization to cope with situational demands Purpose - motivational urge to accomplish something specific at that moment Expression - nonverbal communication of our emotional experience to |
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External events and social context |
Environment, social, and cultural offering that affect a person's internal motives Ex. environmental - money or praise; social - workplace climate |
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How is behavior related to motivation |
Can express the presence, intensity, and quality of motivation Effort, persistency, latency, choice, probability of response, facial expressions and bodily gestures We infer someone's motivation from their Behavior |
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Engagement |
How actively a person is involved in a task. Described by: Behaviour - attitude, effort, persistence Emotion- presence of enjoyment, absence of distress Cognition - seeking conceptual understanding Agency - contributing |
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Psychophysiology |
Process by which psychological States produce downstream changes in the body's physiology. Substances released from the nervous and endocrine systems provide the biological underpinnings of motivational and emotional states |
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Brain activation and motivation |
Behaviors are a manifestation of brain activity and different patterns and brain activity can be indicatives of different motivational and emotional states |
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Why can self-reports on an individuals motivation be unreliable |
Because people are not aware of self motivation, and because of this scientist rely on behavioral inferences |
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What is the Adaptive benefit of motivation and emotion |
Allows us to maintain an adequate level of functioning despite our changing environment Ex. Hunger, stress, loneliness |
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How does motivation and emotion direct attention? |
Environments simultaneously pull our attention in many different directions. Motivation and emotion help to channel our attention in a particular direction |
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How are motivation and emotion intervening variables? |
Motivation and emotion processes arise in response to environmental events, and once aroused, caused behaviour and outcomes. I.e not direct cause of behaviour. |
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True or false: motives vary over time and influence the ongoing stream of behaviour |
True |
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True or false: motives vary over time and influence the ongoing stream of behaviour |
True |
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Types of motivation |
Intrinsic: from within, typically leads to better outcomes Extrinsic: from outside, competition |
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? |
Motivations study reveals what people want |
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Why does motivation need supportive conditions? |
To flourish. A persons motivation cannot be separated from the social context in which it is embodied. People in supportive environments will show greater vitality |
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? |
When trying to motivate others, what is easy to do is rarely what is effective. |
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Greek Dualism |
Body - irrational, impulsive, biological Mind - rational, intelligent, spiritual l |
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Will Theory |
Choosing, striving, resisting Comes from innate capacities, environmental sensations, life experiences, and reflections upon itself and its ideas. As difficult to explain as the motivation it supposedly generated. |
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Instinct Theory |
Unlearned, automated, mechanistic, and inherited forces that orient a person to a specific goal. Gene's cause humans to act a certain way Does not explain the underlying observed behaviour |
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Drive Theory: freud |
The function of behaviour is to service bodily needs. Biological urges were recurring conditions in the body that produced energy build ups within the nervous system. Energy build ups created psychological discomfort that produced the drive to initiate behaviour, which then continued until the drive was satisfied |
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Drive theory: Hull |
A pooled energy source composed of all current bodily deficits/ disturbances Predicted high vs low motivation Drive increased in proportion to the duration of deprivation Behaviours that reduced drive produced reinforcement |
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Drive Theory |
Drive emerged from bodily needs Drive energized behaviour Drive reduction was reinforcing and produced learning |
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Problems with drive theory |
Some motives arise without biological need Environmental sources can motivate behaviour Learning can occur without drive reduction |
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Incentive Theory |
An external event that energizes and directs approach or avoidance behaviour 1. New motivational concepts, such as incentives and expectancies 2. Ides that motovstionsl states could be acquired through experience rather than just through inherited biology 3. Portrayal of motivation that highlighted moment to moment changes |
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Arousal Theory |
Arousal represents a variety of processes that govern alertness, wakefulness, and activation |
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Active nature of the person |
Humans inherently active, and always motivated Sound motivation theory should assume that motivation is constant, never ending, fluctuating, and complex and this it is an almost universal characteristic of practically every organismic state of affairs |
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Cognitive resolution |
Thoughts, beliefs, expectations, goals, and judgements were seen as the primary causes of behavior. Human research became more of a focus then animal |
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Socially relevant questions |
Researchers focused on questions that were relevant to solving motivational problems people faced in their every day lives More collaborative with other realms of psychology |
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Cerebral Cortex |
Functions at a conscious, intentional, and purposeful level. Provides planning required for complex behavior. Adapt behaviors to new situations |
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Suncortical brain |
Functions at an unconscious, automatic, and emotional level. Associated with basic urges and impulses, as well as emotion rush motivations |
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Describe motivational neural pathways |
Communication pathways, allows the cognitive, motivational, and emotional states that arise in one brain area to inform, contribute to, and change the cognitive, motivational, and emotional states that arise in another part. Bidirectional communication. Cortical - cognitive control Sibcortical - basic motivations |
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Dual process theory |
Bidirectional forces between basic motivations and cognitive control over these basic motivations and emotions that dictate our behaviour |
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Use the example of adult vs child development to explain the dual process theory |
Cortical brain structures take longer to fully develop, leaving subcortical structures uninhibited children have difficulty controlling their urges, but their self-control improves throughout development as their cortical structures develop and gain control |
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What is the function of neurotransmimtters |
neurons communicate with one another through the release, transmission, and receipt of neurtransmitters |
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name 4 neurotransmitters and their main function in the brain |
1. dopamine - reward and pleasure 2. serotonin - mood and emotion 3. norepinephrine - arousal and alertness 4 endorphins - inhibition of pain, anxiety, and fear |
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Reticular formation |
Ascending reticular activating system - arousal Descending reticular activating system- muscle tone |
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Amygdala |
-made of many interconnected nuclei -detect, learn about and respond to emotionally significant stimuli (especially negative) -major component of the social brain -Allows us to learn the reward properties of environmental objects and events |
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Describe the projections to and from the amygdala |
-send projections to almost every part of the brain
- only receives return projections from a few areas - emotion can overpower cognition |
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basal ganglia |
- energize or inhibit action plans - substania nigra and GP: motivationally and emotionally preparing action - caudate and putamen: movement intentions and coordinated action |
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Ventral Striatum |
Made up of the nucleus accumbens, caudate, and putamen "reward Centre" activation in this region while processing objects or events teach us what we like, what we prefer, and what we want |
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nucleus accumbens |
responsible for pleasant and rewarding feelings high concentration of dopamine receptors motivates behaviours that promote dopamine release |
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Ventral tegmental area |
manufacture dopamine releases dopamine in anticipation of reward projects to the nucleus accumbens and other areas other cortex |
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Hypothalamus |
regulate important biological functions regulates activity in the endocrine and autonomic nervous system |
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Pituitary Gland |
master gland of endorcine/ hormone system regulated by hormones secreted by the hypothalamus |
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Autonomic nervous system |
controls bodily organs under INVOLUNTARY control i.e heart, lungs, liver |
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Insular cortex |
posterior: monitors and becomes aware of changes in bodily states anterior: interprets and makes us consciously aware of changes in bodily states responsible for "gut" feeling and intrinsic reward |
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Prefrontal cortex |
affect and goals/ personal strivings - Right: negative emotions, avoidance behav., sympathetic - Left: positive emotions, approash behav., parasympathetic |
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Orbitofrontal cortex |
-stores and processes reward related information -helps us develop preferences and to male decisions based on those preferences -inhibiting inappropriate actions -delayed gratification -reciprocal inhibition with subcortical structures |
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Ventromedial PFC |
-determines affective value of sensory stimuli and social cues -integrates cognition and emotion during decision making |
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Dorsolateral PFC |
stores information related to the learned emotional value of object and events - self control -socioeconomic competence |
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Anterior cingulate cortex |
major control region of the brain - prioritizing attention -monitoring conflict -making choices -predicting consequences of actions |
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Cortisol |
Hormone that... - is released in response to stress - is a byproduct of hypothalamic pituitary-adrenocortical sysyem - short term mobilizes energy - long term has serious health consequences |
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Testosterone |
Hormone responsbile for - competitiveness - status seeking behaviour - sexual motivation - mating effort - athleticism - correlate with performance and training outcomes |
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Oxytocin |
bonding hormone why people seek social contact in stressful situations |
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Differentiate between deficiency needs and growth needs. |
D: emergency-like changes in behaviour, emergency-laden emotions (anxiety, frustration, stress) G: more subtle shifts on behaviour, positive emotions (interest, hope, enjoyment) |
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Describe the fundamentals of regulations. |
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Describe the fundamentals of regulations. |
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Describe a physiological need |
Describes a deficient biological condition (lack of water). Ranges from mild to life threatening If left unsatisfied, death will occur |
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Describe psychological drive |
Byproduct of physiological need Motivates behaviour - ex. Dehydration (bio) leads to thirst (psych) which leads to water consumption (motivated behaviour) |
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Homeostasis |
Bodies ability to maintain an internal balance, despite fluctuating environment. Largely due to our motivation to take action when our system has been displaced |
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Negative feedback |
1. System variable 2. Set point 3. Detector 4. Correctional mechanism |
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Provide examples of multiple inputs for one drive |
Thirst can be a result of sweating, salty food, drinking too much coffee or alcohol |
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Intraorganismis mechanisms |
Biological regulatory systems that activate, maintain, and terminate the biological needs underlying our drives |
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Extraorganismic mechanisms |
All environmental influences that play a role in activating, maintaining, and terminating psychological drive |
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What percentage of water lost will start to lead to thirst? |
2% loss of water. Dehydration starts at 3%. |
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Intracellular fluid |
Fluid portion of the cytoplasm. Important for chemical reactions Loss leads to Osmometric thirst |
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Extracellular fluid |
Intravascular fluid (blood plasma), Cerebrospinal fluid (brain and spinal), Interstitial fluid (cells). - important for operation of the heart - Loss leads to volumetric thirst |
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Osmometric thirst |
Occurs when the solute concentration of the interstitial fluid increases Osmoreceptors - neurons whose firing rates are affect by their level of dehydration |
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What areas of the brain play a role in thirst? |
Anterior cingulate cortex: feeling of being thirsty Lamina terminalis: blood plasma concentrations of solutes |
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Volumetric thirst |
Related to volume of blood plasma - intravascular volume Caused by evaporation, loss of blood, vomiting, and diarrhea. |
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How is volumetric thirst detected? |
detector cells in the heart and kidneys contribute to monitoring blood volume and inducing thirst - angiotensin initiates drinking - stretch sensitive cells (baroreceptors) in the atria of the heart detect when blood volume in the heart fails |
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What is the purpose of the satiety mechanism? |
monitors the activity of the correctional mechanism, not the system variables themselves |
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what are the environmental influences of thirst? |
- drinking behaviours change in accordance with the incentive value of fluid. - Beverages are consumed for their taste, physiological side-effects, and for social reasons - drinking is more complex than thirst-regulated water consumption |
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What are the 3 reasons drinking occurs? |
- thirst-related water replenishment, which satisfies biological need - non-thirst-related sweet taste, which is a response to the attractive incentive value of flavoured water - a non-thirst-related attraction to, or even addiction to, a substance in the water (and not the water itself) ex. caffeine |
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what are the 3 models of hunger? |
1. Short-term appetite homeostatic-based model 2. long term genetic and metabolic energy balance model 3.cognitive-social-environmental model |
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Short-term appetite |
- glucostatic-hypothesis model - liver and brain detect changes in glucose levels |
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What happens in the digestive system during hunger? |
- gastrointestinal system releases ghrelin - binds to hypothalamus to stimulate eating behaviour |
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What role does the hypothalamus play in hunger?
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lateral area: promotes eating (hunger) ventrommedial area: stops eating (satiety) |
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Short-term satiety signals |
Gastric factors - stomach contains nutrient detectors Intestinal factors - cholecystokinin (CCK); detects fats, keeps food in stomach, signals the brain that nutrients are entering the duodenum from the stomach Liver factors - when the liver receives nutrients from the intestines, it sends a signal to the brain the produces satiety |
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Long-term Satiety Signals |
Lipostatic hypothesis: fluctuations in fat levels trigger the release of ghrelin to promote eating, or leptin to stop eating |
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Set-point theory
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biologically determined body weight of "fat thermostat" set by genetics |
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Environmental influences of hunger |
1. deliciousness of food 2. company 3. portion sizes 4. time of day 5. colour of cutlery 6. sensory factors - taste and dour indicate caloric content, and contribute to reduced appetite in the elderly |
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Self-regulating influences on hunger |
1. Cognitively regulated eating style - dieting requires insensitivity to internal cures and conscious control over the unconscious physiological controls that promote eating behaviour 2. Restraint-release - when individuals restrain themselves, small amounts of release tends to result in binge like behaviours |
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What are some health risks associated with weight-gain and obesity? |
cardiovascular disease, diabetes, stroke, arthritis, and some forms of cancer |
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Environmental factors to obesity |
body weight = calories consumed - energy expanded inexpensive, convenient, good-tasting, high-calories food is readily available, which promotes an increase it its intake high-fructose corn syrup is less likely to activate the brains satiety mechanisms |
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Physical Activity factors to obesity |
increase in sedentary jobs - decrease in physical activity without dietary modifications leads to inevitable weight gain |
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Genetic Factors |
40-70% of variability in body fat has been inked to genes heredity influences metabolic efficiency leptin |
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what are voluntary processes to regulate weight |
self-regulated of food intake mindfulness over environmental influences exercise motivation |
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Physiological regulation of sex |
- in humans, sexual behaviour is influenced, but not determined, by hormones - androgen's contribute to sexual motivational in men, while estrogen contribute to sexual motivation i women - men and women experience and react to sexual activity desire very differently - sex stimulates the brains reward circuit; the hypothalamus releases Oxycontin -> produces pleasurable feelings |
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Physiological regulation of sex: men |
- correlation between physiological arousal and psychological desire is high - sexual desire can be predicted by level of sexual arousal |
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Physiological regulation of sex: women |
- correlation between physiological arousal and psychological desire is low - sexual desire cannot be predicted and explained by physiological need or arousal levels - sexual desire responsive to relationship factors |
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what is the most potent external stimulus that affects sexual motivation? |
physical attractiveness |
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what are some universally attractive features? |
health, youthfulness, and reproductive capacity |
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Facial metrics |
the study of peoples judgements of the attractiveness of facial characteristics neonatal, sexual maturity, and expressive features explain the attractiveness judgements of faces |
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Sexual scripts |
ones mental representation of the step-by-step sequence of events that occur during a typical sexual episode incompatible sexual scripts result in awkward and unsuccessful sexual encounters |
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evolutionary basis of sexual motivation |
sexual behaviour is constrained by genes- genes determine mating strategies as mush as rational thought - men have short-term sexual motivations, impose less stringent standards, value sexual accessibility cues such as youth, and value chastity in mates - women value signs of a mans resources, social status, ambition, and promising career potential |
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Quasi-needs |
- situationally induced wants and desires that drive extrinsic motivation - resemble real needs in that they affect how we think, feel, and act - create a sense of urgency that can displace real needs |
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In what ways are quasi-needs different from real needs? |
- disappear once we get what we want (they dont follow the typical cyclical pattern of real needs) - not essential for growth, well-being, and life - rather we feel we must have these things based on environmental pressures |
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what is extrinsic motivation? |
environmentally created reason to initiate or persist in an action AKA Operant conditioning |
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?? |
we engage in behaviours that produce rewards while avoiding behaviors that result in punishment |
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what does the success of operant conditioning depend on? |
incentives, consequences, and rewards |
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what are incentives? |
environmental events or situations that attract or repel a person towards or away from initiating a particular course of action - always PRECEDES behaviours |
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what are reinforcers |
environmental objects or events that increase behaviours - vary in quality - timing influences effectiveness |
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what is a positive reinforcer |
any environmental stimulus, that when presented, increases the future probability of the desired behaviour |
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what is a reward |
any offering given in exchange for service or achievement can function as positive reinforcers, but don't have to - this is only if the reward causes continued behaviour |
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When do rewards work best? |
when they are unexpected |
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describe the relationship between rewards and dopamine. |
unexpected positive events trigger the release of dopamine increase dopamine levels direct behaviour and sustain goal directed action |
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What are negative reinforcers |
Environmental stimuli that when removed, increase the future probability of the desired behaviour. Escape behaviours - remove an aversive stimulus Avoidance behaviours - prevent an aversive stimulus from happening in the first place |
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What are punishers? |
Decrease the probability of an undesired behaviour |
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Do punishers work? |
punishers are ineffective motivational strategies and generate unintentional side-effects |
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What are alternatives to punishment? |
- differential reinforcement: ignore the unwanted behaviour and promote rival desired behaviou - scaffolding: providing behavioural support to promote more desirable, adaptive ways of behaving - observational learning: demonstrating and modelling appropriate behaviours before unwanted behaviours begin to appear, and inviting others to imitate the desired behaviours. |
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Intrinsic motivation |
- the inherent need to seek out novelty, challenge, to extend and exercise one's capacities to explore, and to learn - these inclinations to explore and master new skills emerges from our innate need for personal growth |
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What is so great about intrinsic motivation? |
individuals who are intrinsically motivated seek out novelty, challenges, they try to extend their talents and capacities, and they explore - promotes development and growth - higher I.M, more they will engage in task at hand - enhances spontaneity, originality, personal authenticity, and creativity - enhances a learners conceptual understanding of what they are learning - I.M individuals tend to be happier, more productive, non-anxious, and well adjusted |
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what effect does extrinsic motivation have on intrinsic motivation? |
E.M can have a negative effect on future I.M - e.m undermines i.m - rewards decrease i.m when the persons expects that their task engagement will yield reward - tangible rewards (i.e money) tend to decrease i.m - intangible rewards (i.e praise) do not decrease i.m |
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what is the result of "over-rewarding"? |
e.m can interfere with the development of autonomous self-regulation - resulting in motivationally empty humans |
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What is the cognitive evaluation theory? |
aims to understand how external events influence an individuals motivation asserts that all external events have both a controlling aspect and an informational aspect |
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How can praise be used as a controlling aspect and informational aspect, in terms of the cognitive evaluation theory? |
can be used to inform others of their compliance (controlling), or to provide information about productivity and competence (informative) |
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How can context change motivation? |
I.e competition - when social contexts out more pressure on winning than having fun, competition decreases I.M because task becomes less important, winning is all that matters - when social context puts little emphasis on winning, I.M increases, improving skills becomes the more salient aspect of the task |
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Types of extrinsic motivation |
external regualation: non-self determines E.M, behaviours performed to obtain reward, to avoid a punisher, or to satisfy some external demand introjected regulation: motivation out of guilt, behaviour is regulated by society's, parent's, teacher's expectations identified regulation: mostly self-regulated extrinsic motivation integrated regulation: involves transforming identified values into part of one's self concept |
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what are the consequences of using expected and tangible rewards? |
only yield compliance, low quality learning, minimal functioning, and a dependence on further external regulation |
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What ways can you motivate someone to do uninteresting work, other than using expected and tangible rewards? |
1. providing explanatory rationales 2. suggest interest-enhancing strategies |
