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121 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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Equilibration (and stages of development) |
-Mechanism by which children shift from one stage of thought to the next -Individuals go through 4 stages of development -Cognition is qualitatively different from one stage to another |
Cognitive Processes |
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Organization |
-Grouping of isolated behaviors and thoughts into a higher-order system |
Cognitive Processes |
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Scheme |
-Actions or mental representations that organize knowledge -Cognitive structures (pervasive thought patterns) that first appear during childhood and help children organize knowledge -Basic building blocks of such cognitive models, and enable us to form a mental representation of the world |
Cognitive Processes |
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Example of a Behavioral scheme |
ex. afternoon: crying to ask for food |
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Example of a Mental scheme |
ex. milk bottle: time to eat |
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Accommodation |
Adjusting schemes to fit new information and experiences |
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Assimilation |
Using existing schemes to deal with new information or experiences |
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Example of Assimilation |
A toddler who has learned the word car to identify the family vehicle. The toddler might call all moving vehicles on roads "cars," including motorcycles and trucks; the child has ______________ these objects to his/her existing scheme. |
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Example of Accommodation |
But the child soon learns that motorcycles and trucks are not cars and fine-tunes the category to exclude motorcycles and trucks, _______________ the scheme. |
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Sensorimotor stage |
-Lasts from birth to 2 years of age -Stage where infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical motoric actions. |
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Characteristics of Sensorimotor Stage |
-Begins to make use of imitation, memory, and thought -Begins to recognize that objects do not cease to exist when they are hidden (Object Permanence) -Moves from reflex actions to goal-directed activity |
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Object Permanence |
Involves understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched |
Cognitive Accomplishments in Sensoriomotor Stage |
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Study on Sensorimotor Stage |
Aim: Investigate at what age children acquire object permanence Method: Piaget hid the toy under a blanket while the child was watching, and observed whether or not the hidden toy was evidence of object permanence. He assumed that the child could only search it. Results: Piaget found that infants searched for the hidden toy when they were around 8 months old. |
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Piaget's Six Substages of Sensorimotor Development |
1. Reflexes (Simple Reflexes): 0 to 1 month 2. Primary Circular Reactions (or First Habits and Primary Circular Reactions): 1 to 4 months 3. Secondary Circular Reacfions: 4 to 8 months 4. Coordination of Reactions (Coordination of Second Circular Reactions): 8 to 12 months 5. Tertiary Circular Reactions: 12 to 18 months 6. Early Representational Thought (Internalization of Schemes): 18 to 24 months |
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Reflexes (or Simple Reflexes) Substage |
-0 to 1 month -Sensation and coordination are coordinated primarily through reflective behaviors such as rooting and sucking -Child understands the environment purely through inborn reflexes |
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Primary Circular Reactions Substage (First habits and primary circular reactons) |
-1 to 4 months -Infant coordinates sensation and two types of schemes: habits and primary circular reactions |
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Habit |
Scheme based on a reflex that has become completely separated from its eliciting stimulus |
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Circular Reaction |
Repetitive action |
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Primary circular reactions |
A scheme based on the attempt to reproduce an event that initially occured by chance |
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Secondary Circular Reactions Substage |
-4 to 8 months -The infant's schemes are not intentional or goal-directed, but they are repeated because of their consequences -Begins to intentionally repeat an action in order to trigger a response in the environment |
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Coordination of Reactions Substage (Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions) |
-8 to 12 months -Actions become more outwardly directed -Significant changes during this substage involve the coordination of schemes and intentionality -Infants readily combine and recombine previously learned schemes in a coordinated way -Children will often imitate the observed behavior of others -Children have an understanding of objects and they will begin to recognize certain objects as having specific qualities |
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Tertiary Circular Reactions Substage |
-12 to 18 months -Infants become intrigued by the many properties of objects and by the many things that they can make happen to objects -Children begin a period of trial-and-error experimentation |
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Tertiary circular reactions |
Schemes in which the infant purposely explores new possibilities with objects, continually doing new things to them and exploring the results |
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Early Representational Thought Substage (Internalization of Schemes) |
-18 to 24 months -Infant develops the ability to use primitive symbols -Children begin to develop symbols to represent events or objects in the world |
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Symbol |
-Internalized sensory image or word that represents an event -Permit the infant to think about concrete events without directly acting them out or perceiving them -Allow the infant to manipulate and transform the represented events in simple ways |
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Characteristics of Preoperational Stage |
-2 to 7 years -Gradually develops use of language and ability to think in symbolic form -Able to think operations logically in one direction -Has difficulties seeing another person's point of view (egocentrism) |
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Study on Preoperational Stage |
Aim: Find out at what age children decenter/not be egocentric Method: He used 3 mountain tasks to test whether children were egocentric. Egocentric children assume that other people will see the same view of the 3 mountains as they do. Result: Age 7-thinking is no longer egocentric as the child can see more than their own point of view |
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Important Concepts in Preoperational Stage |
1. Operations 2. Semiotic Function 3. Reversible Thinking 4. Conservation 5. Decentering 6. Egocentric 7. Collective Monologue |
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Operations |
Actions a person carries out by thinking them through instead of literally performing the actions |
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Semiotic Function |
Ability to use symbols (language, pictures, signs, or gestures) to represent actions or objects mentally |
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Reversible thinking |
-Thinking backward -From end to beginning |
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Conservation |
Principle that some characteristics of an object remain the same despite changes in appearances |
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Decentering |
-Focusing on more than one aspect at a time -Not egocentric |
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Egocentric |
Assuming that others experience the world the way they do |
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Collective Monologue |
Form of speech in which the children in a group talk but do not really interact or communicate |
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Concrete Operational Stage |
-7 to 11 years -Able to solve concrete hands-on problems in logical fashion -Understands laws of conservation and is able to classify and seriate -Understands reversibility |
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Study on Concrete Operational Stage |
Aim: Find out at what age children can understand conservation Method: He used 2 different shaped glasses. One was filled with water while the other was not. Result: Age 7- Majority of children can conserve liquid. They can understand that when water is poured into a different shaped glass, the quantity of liquid remains the same even though its appearance has changed. |
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Important Concepts on Concrete Operational Stage |
1. Concrete Operations 2. Identity 3. Compensation 4. Reversibility/Reverse thinking 5. Classification 6. Seriation |
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Concrete Operations |
Mental tasks tied to concrete objects and situations |
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Identity |
Principle that a person or objects remains the same over time |
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Compensation |
Principle that changes in one dimension can be an offset by changes in another |
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Reversibility/Reverse thinking |
Ability to think through a series of steps, then mentally reverse the steps and return to the starting point |
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Classification |
Grouping of objects into categories |
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Seriation |
Arranging of objects in sequential order according to one aspect such as size, weight, or volume |
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Formal Operational Stage |
-11 years and above -Solve abstract problems in logical fashion -More scientific in thinking -Develops concerns about social issues and identity |
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Study on Formal Operational Stage |
Aim: Find out which factor was most important in determining the speed of the swing and pendulum Method: Involved a length of a string and a set of weights. Participants had to consider 3 factors— the length of the string, heaviness of the weight, and strength of the push Result: Children approached the task systematically, testing each variable. |
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Important Concepts on Formal Operational Stage |
1. Formal Operations 2. Hypothetical-deductive reasoning 3. Adolescent egocentrism |
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Formal Operations |
Mental tasks involving abstract thinking and coordination of a number of variables |
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Hypothetical-deductive reasoning |
Adolescents can develop hypotheses that solve problems and systematically reach a conclusion |
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Adolescent egocentrism |
Heightened self-consciousness that is reflected in adolescent's beliefs that others are intersted in them as they themselves are |
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Summary of Main Characteristics in Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development |
Sensorimotor-Object Permanence Preoperational-Egocentrism Concrete Operational-Conservation Formal Operational-Manipulation of Ideas |
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Evaluating Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage |
1. A-not-B error 2. Perceptual Development and Expectations 3. The Nature-Nurture Issue |
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A-not-B error |
Infants make the mistake of selecting the familiar hiding place of the object (A) rather than the new hiding place (B) |
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Perceptual Development and Expectations |
Researchers conclude that infants see objects as bounded, unitary, solid, and separate from their background, possibly at birth or shortly thereafter, but definitely by 3 to 4 months |
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Nature-Nurture Issue |
Although debate about the cause and course of infant cognitive development continues, most developmentalists todat agree that Piaget underestimated the early cognitive accomplishments of infants and that both nature and nurture are involved in infants' cognitive development. |
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Core knowledge approach |
Infants are born with doman-specific innate knowledge systems |
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Conclusions |
1. Piaget was not specific enough about how infants learn about their world and that infants, especially young infants, are more competent than Piaget thought. 2. Infant cognition has become extremely specialized. 3. Currently trying to understand how developmental changes in cognition take place, examine the big issue for nature and nurture, and to study the brain's role in cognitive development. |
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Conditioning |
Involves: 1. Operant Conditioning 2. Information Retention |
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Operant Conditioning |
-Helpful to researchers in their efforts to determine what infants perceive -Rewards and punishments produce changes in the probability of the behavior's occurence |
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Information Retention |
Infants can retain information from the experience of being conditioned |
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Attention |
Focusing of mental resources on select information, improves cognitive processing on many tasks |
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Orienting/Investigative Process |
Directing attention to potentially important locations in the environment and recognizing objects and their features |
Attention |
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Sustained attention |
-Referred to as focused attention -Allows infants to learn and remember characteristics of a stimulus as it becomes familiar
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Habituation |
Decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations of stimulus |
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Dishabituation |
Increase in responsiveness after a change in stimulation |
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Joint Attention |
Occurs when two or more individuals focus on the same object or event |
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Requirements for Joint Attention |
1. Ability to track another's behavior (following the gaze of another person) 2. One person's directing another's attention 3. Reciprocal interaction |
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Memory |
Retention of information over time |
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Two Types of Memory |
1. Implicit Memory 2. Explicit Memory |
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Implicit Memory |
-Without conscious recollection -Memories of skills and routine procedures that are performed automatically |
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Explicit Memory |
Conscious remembering of facts and experiences |
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Childhood/Infantile Amnesia |
Individuals remember little if anything from their first 3 years of life |
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Age Group & Length of Delay |
▪︎6 months - 24 hours ▪︎9 months - 1 month ▪︎10 to 11 months - 3 months ▪︎13 to 14 months - 4 to 6 months ▪︎︎20 months - 12 months |
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Imitation |
-Infants can imitate a facial expression within the first few days after birth -Do not resemble a hardwired response but involve flexibility and adaptability |
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Deffered Imitation |
Occurs after a delay of hours or days |
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Concepts |
Cognitive groupings of similar objects, events, people, or ideas |
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Perceptual Categorization |
Categorizations based on similar perceptual features of objects |
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Conceptual Categorization |
More complex and accurate than perceptual categorization |
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Individual Differences and Assessment: Measures of Infant Development |
1. Developmental Quotient (DQ) 2. Bayley Scales of Infant Development 3. Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence |
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Developmental Quotient (DQ) |
Score that combines sub scores in motor, language, adaptive, and personal-social domain in the Gessell assessment of infants |
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Bayley Scales of Infant Development |
-Assess infant behavior and predict later development -Has 3 components: 1. Mental scale 2. Motor scale 3. Infant behavior profile |
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Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence |
Evaluates an infant's ability to process information |
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Predicting Intelligence |
-Tests for infants contain items related to perceptual-motor development -Include measures of social interaction |
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Language |
-Form of communication -Can be spoken, written, or signed -Based on a system of symbols -Consists of the words used by a community and combining them |
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Infinite generativity |
Ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences using finite set of words and rules |
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Phonology |
Sound system of a language Includes sounds that are used and how they may be combined |
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Phoneme |
Smallest unit of sound that affects its meaning |
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Morphology |
The system of meaningful units involved in word formation |
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Morpheme |
Minimal unit of meaning |
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Syntax |
The system that involves the way words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences |
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Semantics |
The system that involves the meaning of words and sentences |
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Pragmatics |
The system of using appropriate conversation and knowledge of how to effectively use language in context Appropriate use of language in different contexts |
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Example of Phonology |
The word chat has three phonemes or sounds |
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Example of morpheme |
The word girl is one morpheme. When the suffix s is added the word becomes girls (two morphemes) because it changed the meaning of the word indicating there is more than one girl |
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Example of Syntax |
Word order in the English Language |
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Example of Semantics |
Vocabulary-knowing the meaning of individual words |
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Example of Pragmatics |
Using polite language in appropriate situations, taking turns in a conversation |
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The Rule Systems of Language |
1. Phonology 2. Morphology 3. Syntax 4. Semantics 5. Pragmatics |
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How Language Develops |
1. Recognizing language sounds 2. Babbling and other vocalizations 3. Gestures 4. First Words 5. Two-word utterances |
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Recognizing language sounds |
Infants can make fine distinctions among the sounds of the language |
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Babbling and other vocalizations |
Infants produce a number of vocalizations |
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Gestures |
Examples include showing, pointing, waving, and nodding |
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First words |
-Receptive vocabulary (words the child understands) considerably exceeds spoken vocabulary (words the child uses) -Vocabulary spurt -Overextension -Underextension |
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Vocabulary spurt |
Rapid increase in vocabulary that begins at approximately 18 months |
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Overextension |
-Tendency to apply a word to objects that are inappropriate for the word's meaning by going beyond the set of referents an adult would use -Using specific word to general |
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Underextension |
-The tendency to apply a word too narrowly -Using a general word to specific |
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Two-word utterances |
To convey meaning, the child relies on gesture, tone, and context |
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Telegraphic Speech |
Use of short and precise words without grammatical markers (articles, auxiliary verbs, and other connectives) |
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Biological Influences |
-Regions involved in language 1. Broca's Area 2. Wernicke's Area -Language Acquisition Device (LAD) |
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Broca's Area |
Region in the brain's left frontal lobe that is involved in speech production |
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Wernicke's Area |
Region in the brain's left hemisphere that is involved in language comprehension |
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Language Acquisition Device (LAD) |
Chomsky's term that describes a biological endowment enabling the child to detect the features and rules of language |
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Behaviorist View of Language |
Several Problems |
Environmental Influence: The Role of Social Interaction |
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Interaction View |
Children learn language in specific contexts |
Environmental Influence: The Role of Social Interaction |
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Vocabulary development is linked to: |
1. Family's socioeconomic status 2. Type of talk that parents direct to their children |
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Child-directed speech |
Higher pitch than normal, slower tempo, and exaggerated intonation, with simple words and sentences |
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3 strategies to enhance a child's acquisition of language |
1. Recasting 2. Expanding 3. Labeling |
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Recasting |
Rephrasing something the child has said that might lack the appropriate morphology or contain some other error |
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Expanding |
Adding information to a child's incomplete utterance |
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Labeling |
Naming objects that children seem interested in |
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Interactionist View |
Both biology and experience contribute to language development |
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