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56 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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linear, cause and effect, and quantitative; the goal is to explain phenomena based on what we already know
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positivist vantage point
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wants to get rid of "ism's" or bring about emancipation and social change and uses qualitative research
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critical vantage point
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looking at how meaning is constructed/re-constructed through communication relationships in which they study in their natural or local setting using qualitative research
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interpretive vantage point
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What are four criticisms of qualitative research?
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(1.) too SUBJECTIVE, (2.) difficult to REPLICATE, (3.) problems of GENERALIZATION, (4.) lack of TRANSPARENCY
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The main focus of qualitative research is _____, whereas the main focus of quantitative research is _____.
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meaning; measurement
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_____ focuses on long-term relationships and campaigns, whereas _____ is more short-term and 1-shot product sales. Both use some of the same _____, but VERY different _____. Both also look at _____.
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public relations; marketing; tools; strategies; diversity
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When selecting a topic/initial idea, what should we ask ourselves?
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"What am I most interested in?"
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When selecting a topic/initial idea, where should we start? (6)
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(1.) professional or academic LITERATURE, (2.) your own EXPERIENCES and interests, (3.) discussions with EXPERTS, (4.) the priorities of RESEARCH FUNDERS/available grants, (5.) BRAINSTORM ideas, (6.) talk with your academic SUPERVISOR
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means your topic advances knowledge (new idea, new twist)
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original
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means your topic is achievable in terms of time, resources, skills, responsibilities, etc.
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feasible
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What questions are we asking when evaluating the value of our research topic?
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(1.) does it help your CAREER, (2.) will your SUPERVISOR be on board?
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What do topics that are considered to be original do?
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What researchers usually understand by original is research that simply aims to add to/advance already existing knowledge (with a new idea or new twist).
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What do we gain from reading previous academic literature?
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The academic literature points to topics that have (1.) ALREADY been researched, (2.) where there are GAPS in the literature, or (3.) where research needs to be EXTENDED or developed.
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In _____ research, researchers go on to develop a set of objectives or _____ which determine in advance a tightly structured line of enquiry. _____ research is more adaptable, unfolding as it goes along. The principle of _____ requires you to begin without a hypothesis, the idea being that your research focus develops from the data you collect. In general, however, it is worth developing a _____ or research aim from the outset because this guides everything you do.
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quantitative; hypotheses; qualitative; grounded theory; central research question
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Qualitative researchers usually work _____, trying to describe their participants' experiences or generating _____ from their data. This is in contrast with quantitative data, which _____ tests _____ with the collected data.
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inductively; grounded theories; deductively; hypotheses
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We usually use _____ to predict what is going to happen, but when we pose _____ we ask open-ended questions since we aren't sure what is going to happen.
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hypotheses; research questions
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What is the differences between a research question and a hypothesis?
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We usually use hypotheses to predict what is going to happen, but when we pose research questions we ask open-ended questions since we aren’t sure what is going to happen.
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What 2 questions are we asking in qualitative research?
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"how?" or "what?"
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There are 4 types of puzzles (questions) to be solved in the research process. What are they?
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(1.) "How or why does X or Y DEVELOP?", (2.) "How does X or Y WORK?", (3.) "What can we learn from COMPARING X and Y?", (4.) "What CAUSES X and what INFLUENCE does X have on Y?"
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What is the reason researchers write a literature review?
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The primary purpose of the literature review is to establish a rationale for your study and show why your research question is important.
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If done well, a literature review will show you what? (7)
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(1.) PROVE WHY YOUR RESEARCH QUESTION IS IMPORTANT, (2.) show PREVIOUS RESEARCH on your topic, (3.) prove a new PERSPECTIVE, (4.) connect THEORETICAL CONCEPTS to the profession, (5.) explain why your methods are APPROPRIATE, (6.) develop the LANGUAGE AND TERMINOLOGY linked to the topic, (7.) critique the main METHODOLOGIES and procedures used by other researchers in relation to the topic
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What should you do when establishing a rationale for your study?
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The rationale shows why your research question is important. This means you need to tell the reader about the current state of knowledge in the field, pointing out where existing knowledge is incomplete or inadequate and how your research might either fill the gap or offer an alternative perspective that will improve understanding of your topic.
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always the first thing you need to provide as it answers the questions "where are the gaps in knowledge your study will address?" and "how will your company or field benefit from it?"
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rationale
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in the fields of public relations and marketing communications, there is an extensive range of academic literature such as e-journals and e-books which are available to view or download from electronic _____ or sites which act as aggregators.
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databases
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Communication and Mass Media Complete, Business Source Premier, and Communication Abstracts are all examples of
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databases
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What is an abstract?
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a 1-2 paragraph summary of the entire article that will help you ascertain whether the article will be relevant to your topic
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When documenting your sources on notecards, what should be included? (8)
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(1.) author(s) last NAME(s) and initials, (2.) DATE of publication, (3.) TITLE OF THE ARTICLE/book/chapter (the edition of the book), (4.) JOURNAL TITLE, volume, issue number and page number (5.) location and name of the book PUBLISHER, (6.) direct QUOTES with exact page numbers, (7.) where you OBTAINED the source (online, work, library, etc.), (8.) brief SUMMARY of the research, highlighting how the research fits with your current study
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What is the purpose of a preliminary research review?
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The main purpose of the preliminary research review is to demonstrate the gap in knowledge that you intend to fill.
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shows the gap in knowledge your research will fill; presented within your research proposal
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preliminary research review
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What are the pitfalls researchers make when writing a literature review? (8)
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(1.) including EVERYTHING that you have ever read on the topic, (2.) choosing UNSUITABLE SEARCH TERMS when trawling the databases, (3.) failing to LINK THE LITERATURE to your own research, (4.) not IDENTIFYING THE RELEVANT SOURCES, (5.) overly RELYING ON SECONDARY SOURCES, (6.) UNCRITICALLY ACCEPTING other people's research, (7.) not reporting ALTERNATIVE OR CONTRARY OCCURRENCES in the literature, (8.) failing to RECORD EXACT REFERENCES when searching and evaluating the databases
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What should be included in a research proposal outline? (9)
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(1.) working TITLE, (2.) BACKGROUND and focus, (3.) LITERATURE review, (4.) proposed METHODOLOGY, (5.) QUALITY issues, (6.) ETHICAL issues, (7.) potential PROBLEMS, (8.) RESOURCES, (9.) REFERENCES/appendices
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ethical considerations include everything involving what two things?
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(1.) the INTRUSIVE NATURE of research, (2.) the WELFARE of your participants
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everything involving the intrusive nature of research and the welfare of your participants
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ethical considerations
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What are ethical considerations?
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everything involving (1.) the INTRUSIVE NATURE of research and (2.) the WELFARE of your participants
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Who are gatekeepers?
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those who have power to give or withhold access
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those who have power to give or withhold access
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gatekeepers
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When recruiting participants/seeking to gain access, you must ensure what three things? (3)
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(1.) participation is VOLUNTARY, (2.) those in the setting are not INCONVENIENCED OR HARMED, (3.) resources are PROTECTED
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What are the four steps of recruiting participants? (4)
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(1) gain ACCESS to the setting, (2.) obtain permission from GATEKEEPERS, (3.) ask participants for PERMISSION to undertake the research and explain how you will protect them, (4.) EXPLAIN EARLY AND CLEARLY the type of project in which they will be involved
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Why could you be denied access to a research setting? (7)
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(1.) ECONOMIC issues, (2.) lack of UNDERSTANDING the value of qualitative research, (3.) do not feel that you "FIT" into their culture, (4.) you will be a DISRUPTION, (5.) worried about CRITICISM, (6.) issues are too SENSITIVE, (7.) participants may be FEARFUL, EMBARRASSED, or too vulnerable
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What does the right of free and informed choice for participants mean?
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The right of free and informed choice states that participants have the right to refuse participation at any stage.
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Within ethical principles, what does protection from harm mean?
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Protection from harm means that no emotional, physical, or reputational harm should come to the people you study at any stage of the research.
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What does being honest at all times include as a PR practitioner? (8)
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(1.) can WITHHOLD SOME INFORMATION as long as it is revealed at a later time, (2.) never FABRICATE information, (3.) never PLAGIARIZE information, (4.) share findings through PUBLIC SOURCES (reports, journal articles, etc.), (5.) give CREDIT to all sources, (6.) ask who will OWN the data, (7.) raw data must be STORED AND PROTECTED, (8.) COVERT research
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Suspicion and fear of potential criticism means what to an organization?
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Suspicion and fear of potential criticism means research findings may not be favorable to an organization and could damage its public image. In this case, you would need to consider phrasing your critical discussion diplomatically without damaging your own integrity.
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What is anonymity?
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Anonymity involves changing names, titles, locations, institutions, etc. in your write-ups. Maintaining anonymity means that you do not divulge the identity of research participants to others. Anonymity is maintained through (1.) the use of PSEUDONYMS, (2.) a change of the NAMES of locations and organizations, (3.) a change of minor DETAIL in the description of participants, (4.) a change of DEMOGRAPHIC factors that are unimportant to the study, (5.) the PROTECTION of data by applying labels with letters or numbers, not names, (6.) secure STORAGE of tapes, lists, scripts, transcripts, etc.
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What is confidentiality?
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Confidentiality is the practice of NOT disclosing ideas or issues participants want to remain confidential. This refers not only to how you eventually use the data, such as in the writing of your research report, but also to how you conduct yourself in interviews. The research should be used only for the purpose which you have presented to participants, and you should only disclose that which participating individuals permit you to share publicly. Participants may tell you something to give you the context of the event that they do not otherwise want to be disclosed.
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True or false? Confidentiality is different from anonymity.
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true
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What is the traditional perspective on quality research?
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The traditional perspective states that both qualitative and quantitative research should be judged by the same standards of criteria, generally those of validity and reliability.
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What is the alternative perspective on quality research?
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The alternative perspective states that researchers should apply different criteria which are appropriate to qualitative research, and use alternative terms such as trustworthiness and authenticity. We should not use the same umbrella criteria for both because the two are so different that there is no way to use the same criteria to see if the studies are valid, reliable, trustworthy, etc.
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What is the radical perspective on quality research?
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The radical perspective states that each research project should be a discrete investigation, judged not against the criteria of others but according to what is most appropriate intrinsically, intuitively or within the research community in which it is situated.
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What is reliability?
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Reliability deals with whether findings are replicable. In qualitative research, reliability is the extent to which a research instrument such as a questionnaire, when used more than once, will reproduce the same results or answer. In other words, it confirms that the findings are replicable
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What is validity?
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Validity deals with the soundness and rigor of research; validity also asks if research measures what it is supposed to and that the study accurately assesses the phenomenon.
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What is internal validity?
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Internal validity is the extent to which the research accurately reflects the social world of those participating in the research and also the phenomenon which you are investigating.
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What is external validity?
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External validity is generalizability, which is the idea that even though you may not be able to generalize the findings you can generalize the procedures and the ability to conduct your study in a variety of similar situations; many feel this is the only way to assess the quality of your work.
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What is plausibility?
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Plausibility deals with whether the claim you make about the findings is plausible -- realistic, doable, etc. People have to believe that what you did was actually possible and that it is realistic to actually duplicate.
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What is relevance?
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Relevance is the concept that any research study must be meaningful and useful for those who study it, read it, and those who are studied. We have to prove that our research is worth something and that someone will get something out of it. "This is why our research is important, this is who may benefit from it."
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What is member checking?
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Member checking is a strategy for ensuring the quality of your research that involves asking your participants to read your findings and verify that you have depicted them accurately. A member check is when you check your understanding of the data with the people you study, by summarizing, repeating or paraphrasing their words and asking about their veracity and interpretation. It provides feedback to participants, enables you to check their reactions to the data and findings, and helps you to gauge their response to your interpretations of the data.
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