Last Psych Test

Front 1

equilibrium

Back 1

the main source of development, consisting of achieving a balance between the child's present understanding and the child's new experience

Front 2

sociocultural theory

Back 2

the theory associated with Vygotsky that emphasizes the influence of culture on development

Front 3

zone of proximal development

Back 3

for vygotsky, the gap between what children can accomplish independently and what they can accomplish when interacting with others who are more competent

Front 4

synaptic pruning

Back 4

process in which nonfunctional synapses die off

Front 5

concrete operational

Back 5

coordinated mental actions that fit into a logical system in a way that creates greater unity of thinking

Front 6

decentration

Back 6

the cognitive ability to pull away from focusing on just one feature of an object in order to consider multiple features

Front 7

egocentrism

Back 7

"to center oneself"
to consider the world entirely in terms of one's own point of view

Front 8

transductive reasoning

Back 8

reasoning of young children that does not follow the procedures of either deductive or inductive reasoning

Front 9

conservation of number

Back 9

recognizing the one-to-one correspondence between sets of objects of equal number

Front 10

conservation of volume

Back 10

understanding that the amount of liquid in a container remains the same despite being poured into a differently shaped container

Front 11

identity

Back 11

a mental operation in which the child realizes that a change limited to outward appearance does not change the substances involved
"they were equal to start with and nothing was added so they're the same"

Front 12

compensation

Back 12

a mental operation in which the child realizes that changes in one aspect of a problem are compared with and compensated for by changed in another aspect
"the liquid is higher, but the glass is thinner"

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reversibility

Back 13

a mental operation in which the child realizes that one operation can be negated, or reversed, by the effects of another
"if you pour it back, you'll see that it is the same"

Front 14

metacognition

Back 14

the ability to think about one's own thought process

Front 15

memory span

Back 15

the number of randomly presented items of information that can be repeated immediately after they are presented

Front 16

memory strategies

Back 16

specific actions used deliberately to enhance remembering

Front 17

rehearsal

Back 17

the process of repeating to oneself the material that one is trying to memorize

Front 18

organizational strategies

Back 18

a memory strategy in which materials to be remembered are mentally grouped into meaningful categories

Front 19

elaboration

Back 19

a memory strategy that involves making connections between two or more things to be remembered

Front 20

metamemory

Back 20

the ability to think about one's memory process

Front 21

intelligence quotient (IQ)

Back 21

the ratio of mental age to chronological age

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Flynn effect

Back 22

the steady increase over the past 100 years in IQ test performance, believed to support the environment hypothesis of intelligence

Front 23

home child care

Back 23

child care provided in the child's own home, primarily by a grandmother or other family member, while the parents are at work

Front 24

family child care

Back 24

child care provided in someone else's home, that of either a relative or stranger

Front 25

child-care center

Back 25

an organized child-care facility supervised by licensed professionals

Front 26

education

Back 26

a form of socialization in which adults engage in deliberate teaching of the young to ensure that they acquire specialized knowledge and skills

Front 27

apprenticeship

Back 27

a form of activity combining instruction and productive labor that is intermediate between the implicit socialization of family and community life and the explicit instruction of formal education

Front 28

emergent literacy

Back 28

knowledge, skills, and attitudes that provide the building blocks for learning to read and write

Front 29

emergent numeracy

Back 29

knowledge, skills, and attitudes that provide building blocks for learning how to do math

Front 30

decoding

Back 30

the process of establishing letter-sound correspondences when reading

Front 31

bottom-up processing

Back 31

an approach to education that start with teaching basic skills and, once they have ben mastered, moves on to more complex tasks

Front 32

top-down processing

Back 32

an approach to education that focuses on using skills to accomplish specific, meaningful tasks

Front 33

instructional discourse

Back 33

a distinctive way of talking and thinking that is typical in school but rarely encountered in everyday interactions in the community or home

Front 34

reciprocal teaching

Back 34

a method of teaching reading in which teachers and children take turns reading text in a manner that integrates decoding and comprehension skills

Front 35

realistic mathematics instruction

Back 35

an approach to mathematics education that focuses on developing the student's understanding of how math can be used to solve real-world problems

Front 36

playworld practice

Back 36

used in several European countries, and based on theories regarding the importance of play in intellectual development, it involved students performing and discussing various themes in children's literature

Front 37

specific learning disabilities

Back 37

a term used to refer to the academic difficulties of children who fare poorly in school despite having normal intelligence

Front 38

academic motivation

Back 38

the ability to try hard and persist at school tasks in the face of difficulties

Front 39

mastery orientation

Back 39

a way that children approach school tasks in which they are motivated to learn, to try hard, and to improve their performance

Front 40

performance orientation

Back 40

a way of approaching school tasks in which students are motivated by their level of performance, ability, and incentives for trying

Front 41

entity model of intelligence

Back 41

the belief that intelligence is a quality of which each person has a certain fixed amount

Front 42

incremental model of intelligence

Back 42

the belief that intelligence is something that can grow over time as one learns

Front 43

school-cuttoff strategy

Back 43

a means of assessing the impact of education while controlling for age by comparing children who are almost the same age but begin schooling a year apart because of school rules that set a specific cutoff birthday date for starting school

Front 44

autonomous morality

Back 44

the second and final stage of Piaget's theory of moral development in which right and wrong are defined according to internal motives and intentions rather than objective consequences

Front 45

prosocial moral reasoning

Back 45

the thinking that is involved in deciding whether to share with, help, or take care of other people when doing so may prove costly to oneself

Front 46

objective view of responsibility

Back 46

an understanding that responsibility depends on objective consequences alone

Front 47

subjective view of responsibility

Back 47

an understanding that responsibility depends on both intentions and consequences

Front 48

social structures

Back 48

complex organizations of relationships between individuals

Front 49

dominant children

Back 49

in reference to social hierarchies, those children who control "resources" such as toys, play spaces, and decisions about group activities

Front 50

social repair mechanisms

Back 50

strategies that allow friend to remain friends even when serious differences temporarily drive them apart

Front 51

coregulation

Back 51

a form of indirect social control in which parents and children cooperate to reinforce the children's understandings of right and wrong, what is safe and unsafe, when they are not under direct adult control

Front 52

social comparison

Back 52

the process of defining oneself in relation to one's peers

Front 53

industry versus inferiority

Back 53

according to erikson's theory, the stage during which children judge themselves to be industrious and successfully meeting the new challenges posed by adults at home and school, or inferior and incapable of meeting such challenges

Front 54

self-esteem

Back 54

one's evaluation of one's own self worth

Front 55

puberty

Back 55

the series of biological developments that transforms individuals from a state of physical immaturity into one in which they are biologically mature and capable of sexual reproduction

Front 56

primary sex characteristics

Back 56

the organs directly involved in reproduction

Front 57

secondary sex characteristics

Back 57

the anatomical and physiological signs that outwardly distinguish males from females

Front 58

menarche

Back 58

the first menstrual period

Front 59

secular trend

Back 59

observed in industrialized countries, a pattern in which the average age of puberty declines across decades

Front 60

emtional tone

Back 60

the degree to which a person experiences a sense of well-being versus depression and anxiety

Front 61

formal operations

Back 61

in piaget's terms, a kind mental operation in which all possible combinations are considered in solving a problem

Front 62

hypothetical-deducive reasoning

Back 62

the ability to formulate and evaluate the logical implications of a set of premises, even if it is imaginary or contradicts the real world

Front 63

sociocognitive conflict

Back 63

cognitive conflict that is related in social experience

Front 64

morality of justice

Back 64

a morality that emphasizes issues of rightness, fairness, and equality

Front 65

morality of care

Back 65

a morality that stresses relationships, compassion, and social obligations

Front 66

sensation thinking

Back 66

desire to participate in highly arousing activities, especially common in early and mid-adolescence

Front 67

intimacy

Back 67

a sense of close connection between two individuals, resulting from shared feelings, thoughts, and activities

Front 68

autonomy

Back 68

the ability to asset one's own needs in a relationship

Front 69

homophobia

Back 69

a fear of homosexuality

Front 70

homophily

Back 70

the degree to which friends are similar to each other

Front 71

deviancy training

Back 71

positive reactions to discussions of rule breaking

Front 72

identity development

Back 72

the process through which individuals achieve a sense of who they are and their moral and political beliefs, their career preferences, and their relationship to their culture and community

Front 73

me-self

Back 73

includes all of the things that people know about themselves

Front 74

i-self

Back 74

the part of the system that reflects on, guides, and directs the self

Front 75

saturated self

Back 75

a self full to the brim with multiple "me's" that have emerged as a consequence of needing to conform to social roles and relationships that demand different, and sometimes contradictory, selves

Front 76

exploration

Back 76

the process through which adolescents actively examine their possible future roles and paths

Front 77

commitment

Back 77

individuals' sense of allegiance to the goals, values, beliefs and occupation they have chosen

Front 78

sexual identity

Back 78

an individual's understanding of himself or herself as heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual

Front 79

sexual minority youth

Back 79

adolescent who develop identities as gays, lesbians, or bisexuals

Front 80

interdependent sense to self

Back 80

the sense of self encouraged by collectivist cultures, characterized by an orientation to fitting into in the group, promoting group goals, and developing the ability to understand the thoughts of others

Front 81

internalizing problems

Back 81

disturbances in emotion or mood such as depression, worry, guilt, and anxiety; more common in girls

Front 82

externalizing problems

Back 82

social and behavioral problems such as aggression and delinquency; more common in boys

Front 83

emerging adulthood

Back 83

according to some developmentalists, a stage that in industrial societies comes between adolescence and adulthood, reflecting new challenges faced by people of about 18-25

Front 84

epistemic development

Back 84

changes in the individuals' reasoning about the nature of knowledge

Front 85

objectivist theory of knowledge

Back 85

the view of knowledge as involving an accumulation of objective facts and definite answers

Front 86

subjectivist theory of knowledge

Back 86

the view that there is no absolute truth, as truth shifts and changes depending on perspective

Front 87

evaluativist theory of knowledge

Back 87

the view that truth can shift and change but is nevertheless subject to particular standards of evaluation

Front 88

Analytic (triarchic theory of knowledge)

Back 88

the abilities we use to analyze, judge, evaluate, compare and contrast

Front 89

Creative (triarchic theory of knowledge)

Back 89

the abilities we use to create, invent, discover, and imagine or suppose

Front 90

Practical (triarchic theory of knowledge)

Back 90

the abilities to apply knowledge by putting it into practice

Front 91

innatist hypothesis of intelligence

Back 91

born generally smarted than others

Front 92

environmental hypothesis of intelligence

Back 92

intelligence is both specific-distinct and separate abilities and heavily dependent on experience

Front 93

polygenic

Back 93

traits that are shaped by several or many genes acting in combination in a given set of environmental conditions

Front 94

explicit instrution

Back 94

deliberate teaching of knowledge and skills

Front 95

socioemotional competency

Back 95

the ability to behave appropriately in social situations that evoke strong emotions

Front 96

locus of control

Back 96

extent to which individuals believe that they can control events that effects them (internal vs. external)

Front 97

brain development

Back 97

between the ages 6 and 8
onset of middle childhood permits frontal lobe to coordinate more complex enabling children to better control their attention

Front 98

alpha/theta electrical activity

Back 98

<5 years: more theta waves: characteristics of adult sleep states
5-7 years: same amount: characteristics of engaged attentions
>7 years: more alpha waves: engaged attention

Front 99

3 common errors in development

Back 99

egocentrism
appearance/reality confusions
transductive reasoning

Front 100

conservation

Back 100

Piaget's term for the understanding that some properties of an object or substance remain the same even when its appearance is altered in some superficial way

Front 101

logical necessity

Back 101

"it has to be this way"

Front 102

co-construction

Back 102

the shaping of environments through interactions between children and their caregivers, siblings, neighbors and friends

Front 103

scaffolding

Back 103

the process of reliance upon guidance until the child can master tasks independently nd build upon development

Front 104

heteronomous morality

Back 104

right and wrong are defined according to objective consequences

Front 105

preoperational stage

Back 105

between infancy and childhood
unable to decenter their thinking to think through consequences of action

Front 106

preconventional (level 1)

Back 106

seeing right and wrong terms of external consequences for the individual following or not following the rules
heteronomous:egocentric
instrumental: recognizing people have different perspectives and interests

Front 107

Concentional (level 2)

Back 107

moral reasoning shifts from external consequences to society's standards and rules
"good child": relationship with other people, more important and than self interest
"law and order": upholding the law

Front 108

Popularity methods

Back 108

nomination procedure:children name their friends or name children that they would like to site near, play/work with
rating procedure: children rank every child in the group according to a specific criterion

Front 109

sociograms

Back 109

representation of each child's relationship to all others in one group

Front 110

pure victims

Back 110

children chronologically harassed, teased, and bullied at school
AKA passive or low-agressive victims
passive:"unassertive" expression of negative sentiments, feelings of anger and resentfulness; act agreeable but doesn't follow through

Front 111

pure bullies

Back 111

"proactive": distinguished from reactive aggressions (unplanned, impulsive)
"instrumental": done in order to attain a particular goal

Front 112

Hostile Attribution Bias

Back 112

tendency to perceive uncertain actions by others as aggressive

Front 113

tanner scales

Back 113

physical measurement of development based on external primary and secondary characteristics

Front 114

semenarche

Back 114

the first ejaculation

Front 115

thelarche

Back 115

beginning of development of breasts

Front 116

andrenarche

Back 116

increase production of androgens (testosterone)

Front 117

"second-order operations"

Back 117

aka formal operations
seeing the relations between relations

Front 118

manipulating variables

Back 118

hold one variable of system constant while systematically searching mentally through all the other variables

Front 119

fundamental characteristics to a friendship

Back 119

reciprocity: give-and-take of close relationships
commitment: loyalty and trust between friends
equality: equal distribution of power

Front 120

identity diffusion

Back 120

gone through a period of decision making about their choice of occupation, political commitment, religious beliefs, etc and are actively pursuing their goals
no exploration
no commitment

Front 121

foreclosure

Back 121

committed to occupational and idealogical positions, but they show no signs of having gone through exploration (they take over patterns of parents identity)
no exploration
yes commitment

Front 122

moratorium

Back 122

actively engaged in exploration
no commitment

Front 123

identity achievement

Back 123

likely to take a cynical attitude toward issues confronting them
yes exploration
yes commitment