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178 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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Invertebrates
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– Important component of ecosystem
– Used in assessing the environment |
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Biodiversity
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Identification of natural units is a guiding principle for studying biodiversity
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Systematics
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Species concepts and methods of constructing evaluating phylogenic tree
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Population Genetics
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Studies the degree of connectivity between populations
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Anagenesis
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Modification of lineages through mutation, gene flow, natural selection, and random genetic drift
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Speciation
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The creation of a new lineage by splitting a pre-existing lineage
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Operational Species Concept
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Provides a researcher with specific criteria to determine whether two different populations belong to the same species
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Ontological Species Concept
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Provides a theoretical definition of what a species is but does specify a method for identification
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Biological Species Concept (BSC)
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- An operational species concept
- Most common definition of species |
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BSC Limitations
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- Irrelevant to allopatric speciation
- Speciation due to geography - Inapplicable to fossil species, asexual organisms |
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BSC defined by Mayr 1942
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Groups of actually or potentially interbreeding populations that are reproductively isolated from each other
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BSC defined by Dobzhansky
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The gene exchange between species is limited or prevented by reproductive isolation mechanisms such as breeding behaviors and hybrid sterility
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Phylogenetic Species Concept (PSC)
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- An operational species concept
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PSC defined by Cracraft 1989
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An irreducible cluster of organisms diagnostically distinct from other clusters and within which there is a parental pattern of ancestry and decent
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PSC strength
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Can be used for sexual and asexual species and species that undergo hybridization
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PSC limitation
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Can underestimate or severely overestimate the number of species present
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Evolutionary Species Concept (ESC)
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- An ontological Species Concept
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ESC defined by Wiley 1981
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A species is a single lineage of ancestor-descendent populations which maintains its identity from other such lineages and has its own evolutionary tendencies and historical fate
- Similar to PSC but does not have a method for identification of species |
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ESC strength
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- Applicable to living, extinct, sexual, and asexual groups
- Species held together by gene flow and both developmental and ecological constraints |
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ESC issue
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"Predictive" element of definition (own evolutionary tendencies and historical fate)
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Cohesion Species Concept (CSC)
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- An ontological Species Concept
- Emphasizes the evolutionary process that hold evolutionary lineages together through time -- Exchange of genes between individuals through sexual reproduction -- Random drift and natural selection play a role |
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CSC defined by Templeton 1989
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A species is the most inclusive group of organisms having the potential demographic and genetic exchangeability
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Demographic Exchangeability
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All individuals in a population display exactly the same range of tolerances for all relevant ecological variables
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Demographic Exchangeability example
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2 individuals of an asexual population occupy the same fundamental niche
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Genetic Exchangeability
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Can counter the subdividing effects of natural selection and genetic drift sexual reproducing organisms
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Phylogenetic Trees (1850's)
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Opinions of organismal relationships
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Phenetics
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Analysis of a large number of characters and a measure of overall degree of similarity between pairs of species
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Cladistics
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Analytical method of discovering evolutionary relationships using synapomophies (shared derived characters)
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Taxonomy
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-Theory and practice of grouping individuals into species, species into larger groups, and giving those groups names
-A field of science the encompasses description, identification, nomenclature, and classification |
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Grouping
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Life, Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
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International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN)
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- Evaluates taxonomic names proposed by scientist
- Keeps the spelling of species names constant among disparate languages |
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Zoological rank suffixes
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Subfamily- oidea
Family- idea Subfamily- inae Tribe- ini |
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Protozoa Taxonomy
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27 Phyla
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Protozoa Size
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Microscopic
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Protozoa Lifestyle
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Individual or colonial
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Protozoa Ecological Role
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Link microbial w/ autotrophic trophic levels
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Protozoa Morphological Characteristics
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Unicellular or acelluar
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Porifera Taxonomy
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24 FW species
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Porifera Size
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Microscopic
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Porifera Lifestlye
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- Lakes and streams
- Hard substrates |
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Porifera Ecological Role
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- Often contain symbiotic algae
- Filter feed on bacteria and algae |
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Porifera Morphological Characteristic
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Tissue level of organization
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Cnidaria Size
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Microscopic and macroscopic
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Cnidaria Lifestyle
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Hard substrate
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Cnidaria Ecological Role
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Feed on algae
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Cnidaria Morphological Characteristics
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Acellular layer of mesoglea between ectoderm and endoderm surrounding coelenteron
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Platyhelminthes and Nemertea Lifestyle
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Solitary, free living
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Platyhelminthes and Nemertea Ecological Role
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Predatory
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Platyhelminthes and Nemertea Morphological Characteristics
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Platyhelminthes
-Simple bilateral symmetry Nemertea -Anus -Closed circulatory system -Muscular proboscis |
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Gastrotricha Lifestyle
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Live in sediments and aufwuchs
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Gastrotricha Ecological Role
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Feed on bacteria
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Gastrotricha Morphological Characteristics
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-Spindle shaped
-Ventrall flattened - Head bearing cilia |
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Rotifera Lifestyle
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- Inhabits freshwater
- Planktonic |
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Rotifera Ecological Role
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Herbivores
- feed on micro algae Predators -prokaryotes, protozoans, and metazoans |
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Rotifera Morphological Characteristics
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-Corona
• Apical ciliated area -Mastax • Muscular pharynx complete set of jaws |
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Nematoda Lifestyle
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- Large part or all in freshwater
- Large component of benthos |
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Nematoda Ecological Role
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Feed on bacteria, algae, protozoans
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Nematoda Morphological Characteristics
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-Unsegmented
-Pseudocoel -Complete alimentary tract -Cylindrical body with tapered ends |
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Nematomorpha Lifestyle
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- Parasitic larvae on inverts
- Free living adults |
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Nematomorpha Ecological Role
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Parasitic larvae
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Nematomorpha Morphological Characteristics
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-Unsegmented
-Pseudocoel -Nonfunctional alimentary tract -Anterior and posterior end rounded |
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Mollusca Gastropoda Lifestyle
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Free living
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Mollusca Bivalvia Lifestyle
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Most parasitic larval state, free living adult
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Mollusca Gastropoda Ecological Role
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Grazers
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Mollusca Bivalvia Ecological Role
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Filter feeders
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Mollusca Gastropoda and Bivalvia
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-Soft-bodied usually with calcareous shell
-Ciliated gills -Ventral muscular foot -Fleshy mantle |
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Annelida Taxonomy
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-Oligochaeta worms
– Branchiobdelida – Hirudinea-Leeches – Polychaeta – Acanthobdelids |
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Annelida Morphological Characteristics
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-Legs absent in all life stages
-Lophophorate tentacles absent -Segmented |
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Bryozoans Taxonomy
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Phylum Ectoprocta
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Bryozoans SIze
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Microscopic
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Bryozoans Lifestyle
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Sessile
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Bryozoans Ecological Role
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Filter feeders
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Bryozoans Morphological Characteristics
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– Ciliated, lophoporatefeeding tentacles present
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Tardigrada (water bears) Size
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250-500 um
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Tardigrada (water bears) Lifestyle
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sediments
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Tardigrada (water bears) Ecological Role
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Feed on plants, animals, detritus
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Tardigrada (water bears) Morphological Characteristics
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Minute adults with four pairs of clawed, non jointed legs
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Arthropoda Taxonomy
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• Arachnida – water mites
• Insecta • Crustaceans – Branchiura – Ostrocoda – Branchiopoda – Copepoda – Decapoda |
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Arthropoda Size
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Mostly Macroscopic
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Arthropoda Morphological Characteristic
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– Adults and most larvae with legs
– If larvae w/o legs, then cephalic region with paired mandibles |
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Stonefly
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• Order Plecoptera
• Family Pteronarcyidae |
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Model Aquatic insect body structure
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3 body sections
• Head • Thorax • Abdomen |
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Top (dorsal)
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Tergum or notum
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Bottom (ventral)
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Sternum
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Sides
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Pleura
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Labrum
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• Forms upper lip
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Clypeus
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• Fused with Labrum
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Frons
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• Fused with Clypeus
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Frontoclypeus
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• Suture line between frons and clypeus, not visible in stoneflies
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Epicranial suture
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Bounds margins of frons and clypeus
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Labrum
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Upper lip
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Mandible
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– Terminal incisor lobe
– Basal molar lobe – Articulation points |
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Maxillae
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– Galea
– Lacinia – Palpifer – Palp – Cardo |
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Labium (lower lip)
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– Ligula
– Glossa – Paraglossa – Prementum – Mentum – Labial papl – submentum |
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Side (Head)
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Genae (singular = gena)
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Top (Head)
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• Vertex
• Occiput – Right behind vertex |
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Cervix (Head)
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Region that head joined to thorax
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Mouthpart orientation (Hypognathous)
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• Mouth parts directed down (ventrally)
– Caddisfly larvae |
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Mouthpart orientation
(Prognathous) |
• Mouth parts directed forward (anterior)
– Beetle larvae |
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Mouthpart orientation
(Opisthognathous) |
• Mouth parts directed backward (posterior)
– True bugs (Hemiptera) |
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Thorax
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– Midregion of body
– Bears jointed legs and wings – May bear gills – 3 segments |
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Prothorax
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– First or most anterior segment
» Pronotum » Prosternum – Bears forelegs |
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Mesothorax
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– Second or middle segment
» Mesonotum » Mesosternum – Bears midlegs and forewings |
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Metathorax
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– Third and most posterior
segment » Metanotum » Metasternum – Bears hind legs and hind wings (if present) |
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Jointed legs
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5 segmented
• Coxa • Trochanter • Femur • Tibia • 3‐5 segmented tarsus |
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Jointed legs Modifications
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• Hind legs for swimming
– Adult Coleoptera, larval and adult Hemiptera, some Trichoptera |
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Jointed legs Modifications
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• Forelegs modified for burrowing
– Ephemeroptera and some Odonata |
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Abdomen
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– Primitive insect abdomen 11 segments
• Last 2 may be fused in adults – Gills • may arise on pleural regions – Ephemeroptera and Megaloptera • Sterna – Plecoptera |
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Abdomen Posterior end
Male reproductive structure |
» 9th sternum bears lateral styli
(claspers or harpagones) » Styli bound Phallobase or aedeagus that comprise the penis or phallus |
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Abdomen Posterior end
Female reproductive structure |
» 3 pairs of lobes or valvae on terminal segments (9‐11)
» Form visible portion of ovipositor |
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Abdomen Last segmement
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– Anus
» apex – Cerci » Laterally – Epiproct » Dorsal shield – Paraprocts » Ventral lobes |
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As temperature, salinity, or altitude ↑
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– O2 that can be dissolved ↓
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As depth ↑
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– O2 that can be dissolved ↑
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Diffusion
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Moves O2 to and through respiratory surfaces of aquatic insects
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O2 diffusion
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-diffuses quickly through air
-slower in water -Insect cuticles reduces O2 diffusion even more |
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Fick’s Law
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– Diffusive Flux between 2 points is:
• (+)correlated to difference in concentration • (-) correlated to distance between 2 points |
J=D(C1 –C2)/(x1 –x2)
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Boundary Layer influence
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– Lacks turbulent flow
• No mixing – Relies on diffusion for movement of O2 – Thickness ↓ as flow ↑ – Trade-off protection from flow for O2 |
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Tracheal System
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– A network of internal, air-filled tubes
– Most insects use this gas distribution method |
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Tracheae
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– Large tubes
• ↓in size from 2-5 μm diameter – Cuticular ingrowths, branching internally from spiracles – segmentally arranged lateral pores – Exchange respiratory gases with atmosphere |
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Tracheoles
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– Branching of tracheae
– Generally 1 μm in diameter – Gasses exchanged by diffusion between tracheoles and cells |
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Open Tracheal systems
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– Presence of functional spiracles
– Polypneustic and oligopneustic |
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Polypneustic system
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– Most terrestrial and some aquatic insects
• Multiple pairs of spiracles (8-10) |
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Oligopneustic system
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– Developed from ancestral polypneustic design
– 1 or 2 pairs of functional spiracles • Often located posterior |
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Closed Tracheal System – Apneustic
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• Rely on gasses to diffuse through the cuticle for respiratory exchange
• No direct contact with outside (spiracles) |
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Surface Area
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Amount of oxygen exchanged by organism partially determined by the amount of surface area available for respiration
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Large surface areas are needed to obtain the low concentration of O2 in water but:
– Larger the organism, the greater the volume per unit surface area, therefore surface area adaptations |
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Surface area adaptations
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• Gills – Large, thin, tracheated body outgrowths for respiration
• Air bubbles – Increase surface area |
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Aeropneustic
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Insects that breath air
• Spiracle air contact • Store atmospheric air or connect with it somehow |
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Stationary air sources
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» Atmospheric Breathers
» Plant Breathers |
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Transportable Air Stores
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» Temporary air stores
» Permanent Air Stores |
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Oligopneustic tracheal system
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– Limited amount of time submerged
– Functional spiracles at end of abdomen – Obtain O2 by • Atmospheric breathers • Plant breathers |
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Atmospheric Breathers
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Do not maintain contact with air source
• Spiracles w/ water-repellent cuticle or hairs |
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Atmospheric Breathers
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Examples
– Dytiscidae and hydrophylidae beetle larvae – Diptera • Syrphidae – Respiratory siphon of the rat-tail maggot • Ephydridae – Shorter siphon, live in algal mats • Culicidae(mosquito)larvae – Pools and puddles – Wriggle at the surface of water and air with oligopneustic siphon |
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Plant Breathers
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• Modified spiracles
– Piercing submerged portions of aquatic plants • Tap plants aerenchyma tissue • Air channels of plants |
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TRANSPORTABLE AIR STORES
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• Carry their own air stores
– Able to stay submerged longer – Serves as a physical gill • Gas bubble able to supply more oxygen than originally obtained • 2 ways to store – Temporary Air Stores – Permanent Air Stores |
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Temporary Air Stores
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• Insect obtains a bubble from surface
• Gas in equilibrium – Atmosphere, bubble, water • Insect consumes O2 |
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Temporary Air Stores
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Compressible Gill
• Length of time of Bubble – Ratio of O2 consumed to bubble-water surface area • Larger ratio = shorter duration • Large insects = large demands = refill often |
• Reduced effectiveness of physical gill
– Deeper dives • N2 diffuses out faster – Lower O2 • Concentration gradient – Temperature • O2 relationship, metabolic activity |
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Permanent Air Stores (Plastrons) a.k.a. uncompressible gills
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– Use of hydrofuge hairs or cuticular meshworks to hold water away from body surface
– Allows a permanent gas film to form, a plastron – Composed on mainly N2 |
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Plastron Structure
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• Hydrofugehairs
• Examples – Lepidopterans, Weevil (Phytobius) |
• Hydrofuge cuticular network
– Outgrowths of the area around spiracles – Rise as columns from the body surface and divid on the top to form and open canopy • Serves as a physical gill • Examples – Pupae of Coleoptera and Diptera |
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Plastron Function
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– Similar to compressible gill
• May never need to surface to replenish plastron • However – Consumption and metabolic activities limited by rate of O2 diffusion – Most are slow moving insects in high [O2 ] environments |
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Closed Tracheal System
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• Cutaneous Respiration
– No functional spiracles – Gas exchange via diffusion through the cuticle • Tracheal Gills |
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Asexual Reproduction
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Reproduction in the absence of fertilization
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Sexual Reproduction
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Reproduction in the presence of fertilization
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Ameiotic
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-WIthout meiosis
-Process of exact replication -Can increase population size rapidly |
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Example of asexual reproduction w/ out eggs
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-Binary fission
-Budding -Regeneration/Fission |
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Asexual egg production (Parthenogenesis)
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Eggs develop into adulthood in the absence of fertilization
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Asexual egg production (Pseudogamy)
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Females can't oviposit unless the mate with male, but egg not fertilized
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Asexual Meiosis
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Pairing and segregation of chromosomes occurs
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Gonochoristic sexuality
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Male or female gonads
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Simultaneous hermaphorodite
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Male and female gonads
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-Common in sessile inverts
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Sequential hermaphrodite
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Protandric
» Male first, then female Protogynous (rare) » Female first, then male |
May be beneficial to be one sex at one stage and another at a different stage
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Gamete Diversity
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Diversity of structure and function of gametes
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Nurse eggs- % off eggs incapable of being fertilized or develop after fertilization; gastropods
Apyrene Sperm w/out chromosomes entirely; gastropods & insects |
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Direct sperm transfer
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Sperm transfered directly into female genitals or via body wall
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Indirect sperm transfer
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Males have sperm carriers or deposit on substrate
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External Fertilization
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Develop into free-living, swimming larva
ex. insect larva, sponges, copepods, bivalves |
Benefits
-Rapid recolonization -Minimal chance of inbreeding -Lack of direct competition with adults |
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Larval Forms metamorphosis
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Transition between phases of life cycle which result in morphological and physiological changes
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Growth and Molting
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Egg-Young-Adult
- Young looks exactly like adult but smaller |
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Incomplete metamorphosis
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Egg-Nymph-Adult
- 3 distinct changes -Nymphs resemble adults but not fully and have different instars |
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Complete metamorphosis
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Egg-Larvae-Pupa-Adult
- 4 distinct changes -Larvae have different instars |
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Origin of Insects Ross 1965
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Pre-terrestrial progeitor of the myriapod insect group (millipedes, centipedes)
-Lived in leaf liter on margins of ponds |
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Origin of Insects Reik 1971
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Aquatic ancestor that lived entire life in water
-lacked tracheal respiration |
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Fossil records valuably indicate
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-Intermediate between two higher taxonomic groups
-Direction of evolutionary trends within a group |
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Systematics
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uses a wide variety of evidence including ancestral and derived character states
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Classical phylogenetic methods
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Taxonomic groupings are deduced by similarity of
characteristics |
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Numerical Taxonomic methods
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Arrangement is based on overall similarity of all available characters
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Cladistic Methods
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Emphasis is on recency of common ancestry
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Succes of aquatic insects through geologic time
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Due to exploitation of freshwater environments by immature stages
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Paleoptera
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Primitive order of insects that cannot fold wings
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Order Ephemeroptera (Mayflies)
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Originated in the Devonian Paleozoic
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Order Protodonata
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Originated in Devonian Paleozoic
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Order Odonata
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Originated in Devonian Paleozoic
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• Anisoptera (dragonflies)
• Zygoptera(damselflies) |
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Order Plecoptera (Stoneflies)
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Originated in Mississippian
Paleozoic |
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Order Hemiptera (True bugs)
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Originated in Pennsylvanian Paleozoic
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Order Coleoptera (Beetles)
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– Originated in Pennsylvanian Paleozoic
– Invaded freshwaters multiple times |
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Order Neuroptera (Lacewings)
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Originated in Permain
Paleozoic |
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Order Megaloptera (Fishflies and alderflies)
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Originated in Permain
Paleozoic Earliest holometabolous insects • Complete metamorphosis |
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Order Trichoptera (CaddisFlies)
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Originated in Permain
Paleozoic |
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Order Diptera (Flies)
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Originated in Triassic
Mesozoic |
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Order Hymenoptera (Sawflies, Wasps)
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Originated in Triassic
Mesozoic |
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